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OCCUPATIONS IN THE BAKING INDUSTRY The baking industry is one of the largest food processing employers in the United States. Oc cupations in baking establishments provide steady, year-round employment to several hun dred thousand workers throughout the country. The industry employs workers to make bakery products, wrap and pack these products, and to deliver them to stores, homes, and restaurants. It also employs mechanics to maintain and repair the large amounts of machinery and other industrial equipment used in modern bakeries. Additional mechanics are employed to service the fleets of trucks used for deliveries. The industry employs many managers and sales specialists to direct operations, especially in large bakeries; and cleri cal workers to perform the regular office duties. Nature and Location of the Industry In early 1965, the baking industry employed al most 290,000 workers in more than 6,000 establish ments. Most of these workers were employed in establishments that produced perishable baked goods such as bread, rolls, pies, cakes, and dough nuts. The remaining workers were employed in establishments that produced “dry” baked goods such as cookies, crackers, pretzels, and ice cream cones. Baking establishments include large whole sale bakeries that sell to retail stores, restaurants, hotels, and other large customers; home service bakeries that deliver their products directly to the customers’ homes; bakeries owned and oper ated by grocery chain organizations; and the cen tral baking establishments of companies oper ating several retail bake shops. Practically all dry baked goods, over 70 percent of all commercially produced bread and rolls, and over half of the commercially produced cakes, pies, and doughnuts are produced in wholesale bakeries. In addition to the baking establishments de scribed above, over 14,000 single-shop retail bakeries employed about 90,000 men and women including shop owners. Although some retail bakeshops employed as many as 20 individuals or more, the average shop employed about six or seven. Many of the actual baking operations in these retail establishments are done by hand rather than machine, and therefore, retail baker ies offer many opportunities to the skilled baking craftsman which are not available in the large industrial-type establishments. Most establishments producing perishable baked goods are relatively small because they serve only their local area. However, an increas ing number serve markets up to 200 miles away, and a few distribute baked goods over even wider areas. In contrast, bakeries that produce dry baked goods generally are large establishments that distribute their products regionally or na tionally. The average number of employees in bakeries producing dry baked goods is about 130, in contrast to about 40 in bakeries producing per ishable products. Almost every community in the United States has at least one bakery. However, nearly twothirds of all industrial bakeries and the same proportion of the industry’s employees are in the following nine States: New York, Pennsylvania, California, Illinois, Ohio, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Michigan, and Texas. Occupations in the Baking Industry Nearly 60 percent of the employees in the bak ing industry perform the actual baking opera tions, receive and store the raw materials, main tain and repair machinery and other baking equip ment, wrap or pack products for delivery, or keep the bakery in a sanitary condition. About every fifth employee is engaged in delivering the indus try’s products. Many of these employees work as driver-salemen, selling to retail stores or directly to customers in the homes. Many drivers with no sales duties are employed to deliver bakery prod605 606 ucts to distribution centers, hotels, restaurants, and stores. The remainder of the work force is em ployed in administrative, professional, technical, and clerical jobs. About 1 of every 5 industrial bakery workers is a woman. Most women workers are employed as secretaries, typists, bookkeepers, and in other of fice jobs. Some are employed in production jobs, such as those of slicing machine operator, wrap ping machine operator, or pie and cake packer; very few women are bakers. Production Occupations. The principal baking processes consist of blending, sifting, mixing, proofing, baking, and wrapping and packing. These processes are similar for all bakery products. However, in the production of crackers and other dry baked foods, the processes are gen erally more machanized. Since bread is the pri mary product of the baking industry, the follow ing descriptions of occupations in the baking pro cesses relate principally to the production of bread. With some variations, depending on the product and the amount of mechanization in the bakery, these are the occupations in any industrial bakery. Dough mixer operator releases batch of dough into trough. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK In general, production workers load and unload machines, watch the operation of the machines, and inspect the output. Mixers (D.O.T. 520.885) weigh ingredients and combine them in blending machines. By means of instruments, they care fully control timing and temperature in order to produce a uniform well-blended dough. The dough is sent to a “proofing” room where the warm temperature produces a fermenting process which causes the dough to rise. When the dough has risen, it is poured into another blending machine and additional flour, liquids, sugar, salt, and shortening are added and mixed. The dough then goes through another fermenting process before it is shaped into loaves or rolls. Dividermen (D.O.T. 526.782) operate machines which divide the dough according to the weight of the loaf to be produced. The pieces of dough are rolled into balls which are dusted with flour in a rounding machine. Dough molders or molding machine operators (D.O.T. 520.885) operate machines which press all the air bubbles from the dough and form it into loaves or rolls. When fancy shaped bread or rolls are made, bench hands (D.O.T. 520.884) knead and form the dough by hand into various shapes, and place the pieces of dough in the pans. The pans containing the machine- and hand-shaped dough go to the final proofing room where the dough rises for about an hour before it is removed and placed in the over. Ovenmen (D.O.T. 526.885) adjust temperature and timing devices on the ovens. In small bakeries, all-round bakers (D.O.T. 526.781) assisted by helpers usually carry through all the steps needed to turn out finished baked products. Large bakeries employ all-round bakers as working foremen in charge of one or more operations. These workers supervise the men and machines in their department and coordinate their activity with that in other departments in order to meet production schedules. A considerable number of helpers (D.O.T. 526.886) are employed in baking operations. They may assist all-round bakers and specialized bak ery workers. They have job. titles such as dough mixer helper, bench hand helper, and ovenman helper. Helpers also perform such jobs as greas ing pans, removing bread from pans, pushing troughs and racks, and washing pans. BAKING INDUSTRY After baked foods leave the oven and are cooled, several types of workers prepare them for delivery to customers. Slicing-and-wrapping machine operators (D.O.T. 521.885) feed loaves of bread onto conveyors leading into the machines and watch the slicing and wrapping operations. They adjust the machines and keep them supplied with waxed paper and labels. The wrapped loaves leave the machines and travel along a conveyor belt to the shipping platform. Many bakery employees work in icing depart ments where they give the finishing touches to cakes, pastries, and other sweet goods. Icing mix ers (D.O.T. 520.885) prepare cake icings and fillings, following special formulas of the bakery. They weigh and measure ingredients and mix them by machine. They also prepare cooked fill ings for pies, tarts, and other filled pastries. In small plants, icing mixers may also spread icing on cakes and cookies. Hand icers (D.O.T. 524.884) are skilled craftsmen who decorate special products such as wedding cakes, birthday cakes, and fancy pastries. When the product is uniform, or requires no special decoration, the frosting may be applied by machine icers (D.O.T. 524.885). Bakeries employ many workers in their storage, warehousing, and shipping departments. Receiv ing and stock clerks check and keep records of incoming supplies and ingredients used in mak ing baked foods and deliver them to various de partments. Packers and checkers make up orders of bakery products for delivery by driversalesmen. Maintenance Occupations. Baking firms employ skilled maintenance workers such as machinists, electricians, and stationary engineers and their helpers to keep machinery and equipment in good operating condition. Large plants, which are usu ally highly machanized, employ many of these workers. In addition, since many baking firms have fleets of trucks, a large number of truck mechanics and other personnel are employed to keep the vehicles in good operating condition. Sales and Driving Occupations. The selling and delivery of finished baked foods to grocers, restau rants, hotels, homes, and other customers provide jobs for many thousands of the industry’s work ers. Some of these workers sell baked foods, some drive trucks, and many perform a combination of 77 8 -3 1 6 O— 65— — 40 607 Baker examines raised bread dough to see if it is ready for oven. these jobs. Driver-salesmen, called routemen (D.O.T. 292.358), work for either wholesale bakeries or home-service bakeries. They deliver bread and other baked foods to grocery stores or to homes along their assigned routes and collect payment for delivered products. A major part of their job is to try to increase customers’ orders and to gain new customers on their routes. Wholesale driver-salesmen arrange their baked products on shelves or display racks in grocery stores. At some busy stores, they may restock the shelves several times a day. Home-service driver-salesmen make deliveries directly to customers’ homes with a basket of baked foods from which housewives can make their selection. Driver-salesmen return to the bakery at the end of each day to make a re port of the day’s transactions. They turn in money collected from their customers and return unsold baked foods. They make a list of the kinds of baked foods that they think grocers or housewives on their routes will buy the next day. These esti mates, assembled from driver-salesmen on all routes, serve as guides for production managers in making up production schedules for the next morning. A large bakery may employ several route supervisors, each in charge of 6 to 10 driver- 608 salesmen. In a smaller bakery, one route super visor may be in charge of all the salesmen. When one of the salesmen is absent, the supervisor may take over the route until the salesmen returns or is replaced. Route supervisors also train new driver-salesmen. Chain grocery store bakeries and multioutlet retail bakeries generally employ truckdrivers rather than driver-salesmen. These employees drive large vans, delivering baked foods to each of their company’s stores. Truckdrivers for chainstore bakeries deliver wrapped bread and other bakery products to loading platforms of the stores. Stock clerks then arrange the display of baked goods in the stores. In bakeries which oper ate their own retail bakery outlets, the truckdrivers wheel the unwrapped baked foods in en closed metal racks from the van to each store. Sales clerks then arrange the display of these freshly baked foods. Administrative, Clerical, and Professional and Technical Occupations. Administrators in large baking firms and proprietors of small firms coor dinate all baking activities from the purchase of raw materials to the production and delivery of baked products. In large baking firms, activities are divided into separate departments or functions and supervised by plant managers, comptrollers, sales managers, and other executives. Other ad ministrative employees may specialize in such fields as accounting, purchasing, advertising, and personnel and industrial relations. Business offices of bakeries employ many types of clerical work ers, including bookkeepers, cashiers, clerks, busi ness machine operators, stenographers, typists, and switchboard operators. A large proportion of these office workers are women. Some large bak ing companies have laboratories and test kitchens where chemists, home economists, and their assist ants test ingredients and prepare formulas and recipes for bread and other baked items. (Detailed discussions of the duties, training, and employ ment outlook for maintenance, sales, driving, ad ministrative, clerical, and technical personnel ap pear elsewhere in the Handbook.') Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for occupations in the baking industry range from a few days of on-the- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK job training to several years of training and ex perience. For example, some bakery workers, such as slicing machine operators, can be trained on the job in a few days. Skilled workers, such as all round bakers and baking specialists, require at least 3 or 4 years of training. Professional per sonnel and some administrative workers must have a college degree, or equivalent experience in their particular specialty. Most inexperienced production workers in the baking industry are hired as helpers (utility workers). They may be assigned such tasks as washing and greasing pans, carrying ingredients to mixing machines, pushing troughs of dough to the proofing room, and otherwise assisting bakers in the shop. By working alongside skilled bakers, helpers are able to acquire baking skills. Some bakeries train their bakers through form al apprenticeship programs. Apprentices gener ally are selected from among the helpers in the plant. Employers usually require that apprentice applicants be between 18 and 26 years of age, have a high school or vocational school education, and show an interest in baking. Apprenticeship pro grams last 3 or 4 years. They include on-the-job training in all baking operations and classroom instruction in related subjects. Some workers acquire baking skills by taking courses in vocational school or by learning the trade in the Armed Forces. Such training may not qualify a young man as a skilled baker, but it may help him to become an apprentice and per haps shorten his apprenticeship period. Bakers may be promoted to such jobs as work ing foreman, or department foreman. Some bakers who have developed special skill in fancy cake making or piemaking may find jobs in hotel or restaurant bakeries. All-round bakers with some business ability sometimes open their own bakeshops. Good health is important for a young man or woman planning to enter one of the baking jobs. For anyone handling food, most States require a health certificate indicating that the worker is free from communicable diseases. Good health is necessary also because of irregular working hours and the extremes in temperatures found in bak eries. Some bakeries have apprentice training pro grams for maintenance workers such as machin 609 BAKING INDUSTRY ists, electricians, and auto mechanics. Other plants hire inexperienced workers as mechanics’ helpers, who gain experience and know-how while working with skilled mechanics. Some bakeries hire only skilled maintenance men. For jobs as driver-salesmen or truckdrivers, baking firms generally hire inexperienced young men with a high school education. These workers often begin as stock clerks, packers, or checkers, and may be promoted to one of the driving jobs as vacancies occur. Some young men take summer and part-time jobs as driver-helpers to gain ex perience. Applicants for these jobs must be able to get a commercial driving permit (chauffeur’s license). Large baking companies often give tests to their applicants to determine whether they are safe drivers. A pleasant appearance and the ability to get along well with people are preferred qualifications for the new worker who wants to sell as well as drive. New driver-salesmen may be given classroom instruction in sales, display, and delivery procedures. Most training, however, is given on the job by route supervisors. Driversalesmen may be promoted to route supervisor and sales manager. Administrative jobs are usually filled by up grading personnel already employed in the firm. Some owners and production managers of bak eries have come from the ranks of baking crafts men, and some began their careers in sales occupa tions. In recent years, large baking firms have required their new administrative workers to have a college degree in one of the administrative fields, such as marketing, accounting, labor relations, personnel, or advertising. Several colleges offer courses in baking science and management; one college offers a 4-year course in this field. Young women who have completed a com mercial course in high school, junior college, or a business school usually are preferred for the secretarial, stenographic, and other office jobs. Employment Outlook Several thousand job openings are expected to occur in the baking industry each year during the 1965-75 decade because of the need to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. However, employment in the baking industry is expected to decline slightly in the 1965-75 decade. Increasing efficiency in produc tion methods is expected to more than offset the growing demand for bakery products resulting from an increasing population and rising income levels. Although total employment in the baking in dustry is expected to decline somewhat, employ ment in some occupations is expected to increase. For example, more driver-salesmen will be needed as suburban developments increase and sales territories expand. Additional maintenance work ers will be needed to keep machinery and other equipment in operating order as bakeries become more mechanized. Some increase may occur in the number of clerical workers as a result of addi tional recordkeeping requirements. The antici pated increases in these occupations will be par tially offset by the continuing decline in the num ber of production workers resulting from the installation of mechanized processing and mate rials handling equipment, and improvements in the methods of processing baked goods. The method of fermenting a yeast broth rather than a dough mixture, for example, has cut processing time from several hours to a matter of minutes. In addition, the freezing of baked goods for stor age until ready for sale permits bakeries to pre pare a week’s requirement at one time rather than small batches daily. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of production workers in the perish able bakery products industry averaged $103.73 a week, or $2.53 an hour, in mid-1965. The rates were somewhat lower in biscuit and cracker bakeries where earnings of production workers averaged $96.80 a week, or $2.39 an hour. Wage rates tend to be higher in the Far West and the Northeast than in the South or Southwest. Because of these geographic variations, the lowest and the highest hourly wage rates vary widely. For example, ac cording to 13 union-management contracts cover ing employees in 45 wholesale bakeries producing bread and related products, hourly wage rates in 1964 for dough and icing mixers ranged from $1.85 to $3.72, and those for cleaners and porters 610 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK from $1.72 to $2.64. The ranges for minimum hourly rates in major occupations in these bak eries were as follows: b read , cak es, p ies, etc., in 11 selected c itie s, w ere as f o llo w s : Baking foremen, foreladies (and all round bakers)______________________ Mixers (dough or icing)_______________ Ovenmen____________________________ Molders and dividers and molding and dividing machine operators__________ Benchmen___________________________ leers and decorators__________________ Utilitymen (general helpers)___________ Maintenance mechanics_______________ Wrapping machine operators__________ Porters and cleaners__________________ Atlanta, Ga _ __________ ___ Birmingham, Ala _ ___ Cleveland, Ohio__ __ . ____ ___ Dallas, Tex ___ __ ___ Detroit, Mich, (bread)__ ____ ___ Houston, Tex__ . . . ___ Little Rock, Ark_ ___ New York, N.Y. (cake and pastry)-------------------------- ___ Oklahoma City, Okla ____ ___ ___ Pittsburgh, Pa. (bread). Oakland, Calif, (transport and ___ chain store) . __ $1. 94-$3. 98 1. 85- 3. 72 2. 21- 3. 72 1. 2. 1. 1. 2. 1. 1. 85017474178472- 3. 72 3. 63 2. 64 3. 73 3. 11 2. 85 2. 64 Some plant employees work night shifts and weekends because baking is done around the clock in many plants. Workers receive from 7 to 23 cents an hour extra pay for nightwork. However, the night shift is being eliminated in some bak eries because the increasing use of freezing proc esses makes it possible to prepare baked goods in advance, and store them until needed. Most plant workers are on a 40-hour workweek, although some work 35 or 371/2 hours and others 44 or 48 hours regularly. For those who work a 35- or 371^-hour week, time and a half is paid for work beyond their regular schedule. For all others, time and a half is paid for all work over 40 hours. Driver-salesmen are usually paid a guaranteed minimum salary plus a percentage of their dollar sales. According to limited information available in late 1964 on baking firms in 13 Eastern States, driver-salesmen for both wholesale and homeservice bakeries had minimum weekly salaries of from $78 to $105. By selling more baked products to their customers and by increasing the number of customers on their routes, driver-salesmen can increase their earnings considerably. Companies generally pay for uniforms and their mainten ance. Truckdrivers for baking plants are paid by the hour. Hourly rates and hours worked vary from city to city. In mid-1964, the minimum wage rates and maximum hours per week before overtime rates prevail, provided by union-management contracts for truckdrivers for bakeries producing M inim u m , wage rate H ours per week $2.59/2 2. 33 3. 23 2. 4 9 / 3. 10 2. 5 4 / 2.33 45 47 40 45 42 45 47 3. 0 7 / 2. 4 6 / 2. 49 40 45 44 3. 85-4. 10 40 Comparable data for truckdrivers employed by biscuit and cracker bakeries in 11 selected cities w e r e as f o l l o w s : M in im u m wage rate Baltimore, Md Boston, Mass Columbus, Ohio Indianapolis, Ind Kansas City, Mo Memphis, Tenn Milwaukee, Wis Omaha, Nebr Peoria, 111 South Bend, Ind Topeka, Kans ______ ______ __ __ _ $2. 5 3 / 2.5 6 2. 71 2 .5 3 2. 44-2. 95 2.3 3 3 .0 3 2. 57 2 .5 0 2.51 2 .3 6 H ours per week 45 45 45 45 49-47 47 45 45 45 45 45/ Home-service driver-salesmen and truckdrivers work mostly out of doors. Wholesale driver- sales men spend much of their time arranging bakery goods on grocers’ display shelves. Many jobs in baking plants involve some strenuous physical work, despite the considerable mechanization of baking processes. Work near ovens may be un pleasantly hot. Paid vacations for employees are almost uni versal in industrial baking firms. Vacation peri ods range from 1 to 4 weeks, according to length of service. The number of paid holidays ranges from 5 to 11 days, depending on locality. Most baking firms have adopted some type of insurance or pension arrangement for their employees, such as life insurance, health insurance programs, or retirement pensions plans. A large number of employees are covered by joint union-industry 611 BAKING INDUSTRY health and welfare plans and pension systems which are paid for entirely by employer con tributions. Most plant workers and drivers belong to a labor union. Bakers, baking specialists, and other plant workers have been organized by the Ameri can Bakery and Confectionery Workers’ Inter national Union or the Bakery and Confectionery Workers’ International Union of America (Ind.). Driver-salesmen and transport drivers are generally members of the International Brother hood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Some mainten ance men are members of craft unions such as the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers and the International Union of Operating Engineers. Where To G o for More Information Information on local job openings in the bak ing industry may be obtained directly from bak eries in the community. High school students—or adults interested in evening courses—may obtain information on courses relating to baking by writing to the Direc tor of Vocational Education or to the Superin tendent of Schools in their local community, or to the State Director of Vocational Education in the Department of Education in the State capital. General information on job opportunities in the baking industry and on requirements for entering accredited schools which offer courses or degrees in baking science and technology may be obtained by writing to : American Bakers Association, 20 North Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60606. OCCUPATIONS IN BANKING Banks have been described as “department stores of finance” because they make a great variety of financial services available to busi nessmen and to individuals. They offer regular and special checking accounts and savings account services; installment and mortgage loans; short term loans for business and personal needs; and investment and trust services. They accept pay ment of utility bills; sell money orders and travelers’ checks; issue letters of credit and certi fied checks; and rent safe-deposit boxes. Banks continue to introduce new services; as for ex amples, the revolving check credit plans and credit cards for individuals, facilities for han dling charge accounts for retail stores, and “drive-up” windows for customers’ convenience. The complicated financial transactions of our present day business world could not be carried on without the services provided by banks. Banks and Their Workers To provide these and many other services, bank ing organizations employed about 775,000 people in early 1965; more than half were women. Ap proximately 700,000 of these bank employees worked in commercial banks, where a wide vari ety of services are offered; the banking occupa tions discussed in this statement are generally those which are found in banks of this type. Other bank employees, many of whom are in the same occupations, work in mutual savings banks, which offer a more limited range of services— mainly savings deposit accounts, safe-deposit rentals, trust management, and mortgage loans; still others are in the 12 Federal Reserve Banks (or “bankers’ banks”) ; and in foreign exchange firms, clearing house associations, check cashing agencies, and other organizations doing work closely related to banking. Commercial banks process about 15 billion checks a year and handle an enormous amount of other paperwork. The clerical employees who do 612 this work account for two-thirds of all bank em ployees. Among these clerical workers are thou sands in jobs which are unique to banks; they are either tellers or bank clerks who process the thousands of deposit slips, checks, and other docu ments which banks handle daily. Also employed are a great many secretaries, typists, file clerks, and others whose duties are much the same in banks as in other types of businesses. Bank officers are the second largest occupational group. Approximately 1 out of 6 bank workers is an officer—a president, vice president, treasurer, comptroller, or other official. Other, much smaller, occupational groups are accountants, lawyers, statisticians, economists, and other professional workers, as well as guards, elevator operators, cleaners, and other service workers who protect and maintain bank properties. This chapter gives information about three large groups of workers in occupations unique to banking—bank clerks, tellers, and bank officers. Some of the other occupations mentioned which are common to banks as well as other institutions are described elsewhere in the Handbook. Where Employed In early 1965, there were about 28,000 commer cial banks and branch banks, and more-than 800 mutual savings banks and branches. Bank em ployment is concentrated, to a considerable extent, in a relatively limited number of very large banks and their branches. In early 1964, the 324 largest commercial banks in the country each with total deposits of $100 million or more, em ployed more than one-half of all commercial bank employees, whereas nearly 10,000 small commer cial banks (with total deposits of $10 million or less) employed only one-sixth of all commercial bank workers. Bank employees work mainly in heavily popu lated areas. The greatest number of bank workers BANKING are in the States of New York, California, Penn sylvania, and Illinois. New York City, the finan cial capital of the Nation, has far more bank em ployees than any other city. Training Bank workers include thousands of professional and managerial employees who must usually be college trained. Practically all clerical workers must have completed at least 4 years of high school; and other workers, such as building serv ice workers and guards, are in jobs which can be filled by persons with a high school education or less. Most newly hired employees undergo some form of training so that they may become fa miliar with bank policies and procedures. Large banks have been leaders in developing training programs, often supplementing them with instruc tion manuals and textbooks. (Additional inform ation about the educational requirements which apply to bank clerks, tellers, and bank officers, and the training given them, is provided in the statements that follow.) In many cities throughout the country, bank employees may prepare themselves for better jobs by enrolling in courses offered by the American Institute of Banking. The Institute’s educational program includes basic courses in English, com mercial law, economics, accounting, and the principles of bank operations, as well as “stand ard” and advanced courses in specialized fields. Tens of thousands of bank employees take advan tage of these educational opportunities and to encourage them to do so, many banks pay all or a part of the tuition of those who successfully com plete the courses in which they enroll. Employment Outlook Employment in banks is expected to rise very rapidly during the 1965-75 decade. New jobs re sulting from employment growth, as well as jobs that must be filled as employees retire or stop working for other reasons, may account for 65,000 openings each year. Still other openings will occur as employees leave their positions to enter other types of employment. Most of these openings will be in clerical oc cupations. In addition, an increasing number of trainee jobs, which may eventually lead to officer 613 positions, will probably become available for college graduates. Some openings for professional and specialized personnel, such as lawyers, ac countants, and electronic computer personnel should also occur. Population growth and the accompanying rise in production, sales, and national income are ex pected to produce a steady growth in the number of business and financial transactions which banks will handle. As a result, total employment may rise to more than a million workers by 1975. The number of branch banks has been increasing for many years and will probably continue to do so as banks seek to make their services more accessible both in cities and in new and expanding suburban business centers. The rapid rise in the number of checking accounts and checks handled, an im portant factor in the growth of bank employment, is expected to continue. More jobs will also be created as banks continue to expand other serv ices. The anticipated services are many, including among others, special savings plans for travel and education, estate planning and administra tion, “in-plant” banking facilities for employed workers, and the management of employee pen sion funds. The estimated 700 banks which had electronic computer installations in 1964, provided conventional banking services to other banks and financial institutions without computers and, to business corporations, such services as account reconciliation, payroll preparation, and customer billing. The number of additional workers needed to handle the anticipated increase in banking activi ties may be slowed somewhat by the continued conversion of many major banking activities to electronic data-processing. Even so, the very rapid growth in employment which has character ized the banking industry since the end of World W ar I I is expected to continue. Electronic dataprocessing is likely to bring about important changes in the pattern of occupations in banking, however, substantially reducing the number of workers needed in some occupations and at the same time creating other jobs which are new to banks. The effect of these developments will vary from one occupation to another, as indicated in the statements on specific banking occupations which follow. Bank employees can anticipate steadier employ ment than workers in many other fields, because 614 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK they are less likely to be affected by layoffs during periods when the general level of business activi ty is low. Even when a bank is sold or merged with another bank, it usually continues to do busi ness, and there is little likelihood that workers will lose their jobs. When bank officials find it necessary to curtail employment, they usually do so by not replacing employees who retire or leave their jobs for other reasons. Although this re duces the number of openings for new employees, it avoids the necessity of laying off experienced personnel. 35 hours is fairly common. Tellers and some other types of employees may work in the evening at least once a week when banks remain open for business; and overtime work may be necessary for some bookkeeping department employees during peak periods, often at the end of each month. Workers who do some kinds of check processing may be employed on evening and night shifts, as may operators of electronic computer equipment. Bank work is generally done in modern, clean, well-lighted, and often air-conditioned offices. Few jobs require strenuous physical exertion. Earnings and Working Conditions Where To G o for More Information Earnings of bank clerks, tellers, and officers, are discussed in the statements which follow. In addi tion to their salaries, bank workers receive fringe benefits which are generally somewhat more liberal then those provided by other types of busi nesses. Paid holidays range up to 12 or more a year, and vacations with pay—generally 2 weeks for those who have completed a year of service— may be extended to 3 or more weeks after 10 or 15 years’ service. Group plans providing life insur ance, hospitalization and surgical benefits, and retirement income are also available to many bank employees. Other fringe benefits, often available, include free checking accounts and reduced in terest rates on personal loans. Scheduled hours in banks are generally 40 or less a week; in a few localities, a work week of Local banks and State bankers’ associations can furnish information about jobs in local banking institutions. General information on banking oc cupations, training opportunities offered by the banking industry, and the nature of the industry is available from: American Bankers Association, Personnel Administration and Management Development Committee, 90 Park Ave., New York, NY. 10016. For additional information on earnings and working conditions in banks, see: I n d u s tr y W a g e S u r v e y : B a n k in g , 1 9 6 U (forthcoming BLS Bulletin 1466), Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C. 20402, 30 cents each. Bank Clerks Nature of Work Bank clerks handle the paperwork associated with depositors’ checking and savings accounts, loans to individuals and business firms, and other bank business. Because of the nature of banking, some of their work differs from the work in other kinds of business offices. (Secretaries, office ma chine operators, receptionists, and other clerical workers whose jobs are much the same in banks as in other businesses are discussed in the chapter on Clerical and Related Occupations.) In a small bank, one clerk may perform several different kinds of work—for example, sorting checks, totaling debit and credit slips, and pre paring monthly statements for mailing to deposi tors. In a large bank, however, each clerk is usu ally assigned one kind of work and often also has a special job title; the work of some of these clerks is described below. Bank clerks known as sorters (D.O.T. 213.885) separate bank documents—checks, deposit slips, and other bank items—into different groups and tabulate each “batch” so they may be charged to the proper account; often they use canceling and adding machines in their work. Many banks also employ 'proof machine operators (D.O.T. 217.388) who use equipment that, in one operation, sorts items and adds and records the amount of money involved. The bookkeeping workers who keep records of depositors’ accounts and of bank transactions such as loans to business firms or the purchase, and sale 615 BANKING Bank clerk operates proof machine. of securities are the largest single group of bank clerks. Bookkeeping machine operators (D.O.T. 215.388) in this group use either conventional bookkeeping machines or electronic posting ma chines especially designed for bank work; in most other respects, their work is similar to that of book keeping machine operators in other types of estab lishments. In banks, these workers are sometimes known as account clerks, posting machine opera tors, or recording clerks. Bookkeepers (D.O.T. 210.388) are also employed in banks, usually to keep special types of financial records. Banks em ploy very few general bookkeepers (D.O.T. 210.388) who maintain complete sets of books. The job titles of many bank bookkeepers are related to the kinds of records on which they work—among them, Christmas club bookkeeper, discount book keeper, interest-accrual bookkeeper, trust book keeper, and commodity loan clerk. Thousands of bookkeeping and accounting clerks (D.O.T. 219.488) are also employed in bookkeeping depart ments to do routine typing, calculating, and post ing related to bank transactions. Included in this group are reconcilement clerks, who process statements from other banks in order to expedite the auditing of accounts; and trust investment clerks who post the daily investment transactions of bank customers. Other clerical employees whose duties and job titles are unique to banking include country col lection clerks (D.O.T. 219.388) who sort the thousands of pieces of mail which come in daily to a city bank and determine which items must be held at the main office and which should be routed to branch banks or out-of-city banks for collec tion. Also employed are transit clerks (D.O.T. 217.388) who sort bank items such as checks and drafts on other banks, list and total the amounts involved, and prepare the documents so that they can be mailed for collection; exchange clerks (D.O.T. 219.388) who service foreign deposit accounts and determine charges for cashing or handling checks drawn against such accounts; interest clerks (D.O.T. 219.388) who maintain records relating to interest-bearing items which are due to or from the bank; and mortgage clerks (D.O.T. 209.388) who type legal papers affecting title to real estate upon which money has been loaned, and maintain records relating to taxes and insurance on such properties. New clerical occupations which have been cre ated by the introduction of electronic data-processing, and which are unique to banks, include those of the electronic reader-sorter operator who operates electronic check sorting equipment, the check inscriber or encoder, who operates machines that print information on checks and other docu ments in magnetic ink to prepare them for ma chine reading, and the control clerk who keeps track of the huge volume of documents flowing in and out of the computer division. Workers in these occupations are employed only in the rela tively limited number of banks that use this kind of equipment. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement High school graduation is adequate preparation for most beginning clerical jobs in banks. For the majority of jobs, courses in bookkeeping, typing, and business arithmetic are desirable. Courses in office machine operation are also helpful. Appli cants may be given intelligence tests and clerical aptitude tests—the latter to determine their ability to work rapidly and accurately. Beginners may be hired as file clerks, book keeping clerks, transit clerks, clerk-typists, or for other related work. Some are trained by the bank to operate proof, bookkeeping, and other office ma chines. A few start as pages or inside messengers. An employee in a routine clerical job may eventually be promoted to a minor supervisory position, or to a job as teller or credit analyst, 616 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK and eventually to a senior supervisory position. Opportunities for advancement to bank officer positions also exist for outstanding clerical em ployees, although they are more likely to attain such positions if they have had college training. Additional education obtained while employed— particularly the courses offered by the American Institute of Banking—may be helpful in prepar ing workers for advancement. (See introduction to this chapter for further information on the Institute’s educational program.) Employment Outlook Employment of bank clerks is expected to in crease rapidly during the 1965-75 decade, creating many openings. In addition to the new jobs created by growth, an even greater number of openings will probably result from turnover— which is relatively high in banks as in other industries which employ many women in clerical positions. Jobs for clerks will arise as established banks expand their services and as new banks and branch banks are opened. In those banks which install modern electronic equipment, how ever, decreases may be expected in the employ ment of workers such as check sorters and book keeping machine operators. Many employees affected by the changeover will probably be re trained and reassigned, either to new jobs created by the change in equipment and processing meth ods, or to other duties related to the many new functions and services which banks will introduce. Overall, the growth in the volume of work created by new bank facilities and services is expected to be so great that the total number of clerical work ers will continue to rise for some years to come,, though much less rapidly than in the recent past. The sharpest increases in employment are expected in occupations related to electronic data processing. Earnings In 1964, average weekly earnings for women proof-machine operators employed in banks in 27 metropolitan areas, ranged from $56.50 in Louisville to $77 in the San Francisco-Oakland area. The lowest and highest average weekly earnings for women Class A bookkeeping machine operators—generally experienced employees who worked on relatively difficult assignments—were $61 in Providence and $89.50 in Chicago. For women Class B bookkeeping machine operators, doing more routine work, average weekly earnings ranged from $55.50 in Providence to $71 in the San Francisco-Oakland area. For women in beginning clerical positions, minimum entrance salaries generally ranged from $50 to $60 a week in most of the localities surveyed. See introductory section of this chapter for information on Where Employed, Earnings and Working Conditions, and Where To Go for More Information, and for additional information on Training and Employment Outlook. Tellers (2d ed. D.O.T. 1-06.02 through .04) (3d ed. D.O.T. 211.368) Nature of Work Every bank, no matter how small, has at least one teller to receive and pay out money and record these transactions. In a very small bank, one teller—often known as an all-around teller— may handle transactions of all kinds, but in large banks different kinds of transactions are usually taken care of by different tellers. A Christmas Club teller accepts and records deposits made to Christmas Club savings accounts, for example, and a note teller handles certain transactions for clients making loans on securities. Other tellers who have special job titles include commercial (or 'paying and receiving), savings, foreign exchange, payroll, discount, and securities tellers. More than 165,000 tellers of all kinds were employed in early 1965. A considerable number worked only part-time, and about 7 out of 10 were women. Commercial tellers, with whom most people deal when they transact business at banks, are mainly occupied with cashing customers’ checks and handling deposits and withdrawals from checking 617 BANKING Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Teller cashes depositor's check. and savings accounts during the hours the bank is open to the public. Before he cashes a check, the teller must verify the identity of the person to whom he makes payment, and be certain that funds in the account against which the check is drawn (or the payee’s account) are sufficient to cover the payment. When he accepts a deposit, he checks to see whether the amount of money has been correctly itemized on the deposit slip and enters the total in a passbook or on a deposit receipt. Tellers may use machines to make change and total deposits. A teller handling savings accounts may use a “window” posting machine which prints a receipt, or records in the customer’s passbook, and simultaneously posts the transac tion in the bank’s ledger. After public banking hours, the teller counts the cash on hand, lists the currency-received tickets on a settlement sheet, and balances his day’s accounts. He may also perform other inci dental tasks such as sorting checks and deposit slips, filing new account cards, and removing closed account cards from files. A paying and receiving teller may supervise one or more clerks assigned to assist him. In hiring tellers, employers prefer high school graduates experienced in related clerical positions. They regard personal characteristics such as neat ness, tact, and courtesy particularly important because customers, who deal with tellers far more frequently than with other bank employees, often judge a bank’s services principally on their im pressions of the tellers. Since tellers handle large sums of money, they must be able to meet the standards established by bonding companies. In filling new positions, most banks give preference to their employees who have demonstrated the necessary qualifications. Newly hired tellers usually learn their duties by first observing experienced workers for a few days and then, under close supervision, doing the work themselves. Training periods may last from 1 or 2 days to 3 weeks or longer. A new teller’s first assignment is usually to a combination job as a savings and commercial teller; or, in those banks which are large enough to have a savings teller’s “cage,” the beginner may start as a savings teller. After gaining experience, a competent teller in a large bank may advance to the position of note teller, or he may advance to the position of head teller, in which he supervises the bank’s staff of tellers. Eventually, experienced tellers may qualify for promotion to bank officer posi tions, particularly if they have had college train ing or have taken specialized courses offered by the banking industry. (See introduction to this chapter for information about the educational program of the American Institute of Banking.) Employment Outlook The number of bank tellers is expected to rise very rapidly during the rest of the 1960’s and early 1970’s, as banks continue to expand their services for the growing urban population. An increasing proportion, however, will be part-time tellers employed during peak hours to accom modate those customers who transact business during the noon hour and in the evenings. More than 15,000 openings are expected each year as a result of the increase in employment and the need to replace tellers who retire or stop working for other reasons. Turnover is relatively high among the thousands of women who work as tellers. 618 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Although increased use of mechanical and elec tronic equipment can be expected to eliminate some of the routine work now done by many tellers, and to speed other work they now perform, it is unlikely to affect greatly the total number employed. Earnings part-time tellers, many of whom are employed in branch banks, earn $2 or $3 an hour for a work week of 20 or 25 hours. See introductory section of this chapter for information on Where Employed, Earnings and Working Conditions, and Where To Go for More Information, and for additional information on Training. Average weekly earnings, 1964 In 1964, earnings of tellers, employed in banks less than 5 years in 27 metropolitan areas, ranged from a low of between $45 and $50 a week to a high almost three times as great. The lowest and high est average weekly earnings for men and women employed in specific teller positions for less than 5 years are given in the accompanying tabulation. The average salaries of tellers with 5 or more years of service were from $6 to $24 a week more than the averages listed above for tellers with less experience. According to the limited information available, A ll-r o u n d tellers: W o m e n ___ M e n __________ Highest Low est $ 5 5.50 6 6 .0 0 (W a s h in g to n a n d $ 7 5 .5 0 9 0 .0 0 ( C in c in n a ti) (C h ic a g o ) P r o v id e n c e ) C o m m e r c ia l tellers: W o m e n ___ __ M e n ___ _ ___ S a v in g s tellers: W o m e n ___ _ _ M e n ___________ 89. 50 (N e w Y ork ) 6 5 .0 0 (B o s to n a n d D a lla s ) ( D a lla s ) __________ 8 9 .0 0 (N e w Y ork ) 5 9 .5 0 ( B a l t i m o r e ) ... . . 79. 50 6 2 .5 0 ( N e w a r k -J e r s e y C it y ) 8 7 .0 0 (S a n F r a n c is c o O a k la n d ) (S a n F r a n c is c o - 6 6 .0 0 O a k la n d ) N o t e tellers: W o m e n _______ 6 3 .5 0 ( P h i l a d e l p h i a ) ... 8 9 .0 0 (N e w Y ork and San F ranc isc o -O a k la n d ) M e n ___________ 7 4 .0 0 ( M i a m i) _________ 9 8 .5 0 ( M ilw a u k e e ) Bank Officers (2d ed. D.O.T. 0-85.10; 0-97.01 through .05, 14 : 0-98.01 through .06, .08, .11 through .13) (3d ed. D.O.T. 186.118, .138, .168, and .288; 161.118; 189.118 and .168) Nature of Work Practically every bank has a president who exercises general direction over all operations; one or more vice presidents who either act as general managers or have charge of bank departments such as trust, credit, and investment; and a comptroller or cashier who (unlike cashiers in stores and other businesses) is an executive officer generally responsible for all bank property. Large banks may also have treasurers and other senior officers, as well as assistant officers, to supervise the various sections within different departments. A bank officer makes decisions within a frame work of policy set by the board of directors. His job requires a broad knowledge of business activi ties, which he must relate to the operations of the particular department for which he is responsible. For example, the loan officer must exercise his best judgment in considering applications for loans, bearing in mind general business conditions and the nature of the collateral offered. He must evaluate carefully the reports of credit analysts on the individual or business firm applying for a loan, and balance the favorable and unfavorable elements in reaching a decision. Similarly, the trust officer must have a thorough understanding of the provisions of each trust which he is ad ministering and the knowledge necessary to man age properly the fund or estate involved; he must invest wisely in order to manage trust funds which were established for purposes such as supporting families, sending young people to college, or pay ing pensions to retired workers. Besides super vising financial services, bank officers are fre quently called upon to advise individuals and businessmen and to participate in many different kinds of community projects. Banking institutions employed about 125,000 officers in early 1965. Women represented about one-tenth of the total; many are employed as officers in the trust, personnel, and public relations departments of banks. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Bank officer positions may be filled by pro moting either experienced clerical bank employees or management trainees. Outstanding individuals may be selected for promotion even though their 619 BANKING Although experience, ability, and leadership qualities receive great emphasis when bank em ployees are considered for promotion to officer positions, advancement may also be accelerated by special study. Courses in every phase of bank ing are offered by the American Institute of Banking, a long-established, industry-sponsored school. (See introduction to this chapter for more information on the Institute’s program.) Other training programs are sponsored jointly by uni versities and local bankers’ associations. Employment Outlook Bank officers most exercise good judgment in considering loan applications. academic background is limited, but college grad uation is the usual requirement for young people who enter as trainees. A business administration curriculum with a major in finance or a liberal arts curriculum including accounting, economics, commercial law, political science, and statistics are considered excellent preparation for trainee posi tions. Valuable experience may be gained in the summer employment programs recently initiated by some large city banks for college students. Most large city banks have well-organized officer-training programs. Usually these range from 6 months to 2 years in length. Trainees may start as credit or investment analysts, or be rotated among various jobs in several bank departments so that they get the “feel” of banking and so that bank officers may be better able to determine the position for which each employee is best suited. Many banks which are too small to operate formal officer-trainee programs nevertheless provide some form of training program which enables trainees to gain an understanding of bank operations. Advancement to officer positions may come slowly in small banks where the number of such positions is limited. In large city banks with spe cial training programs, initial promotions may come more quickly. For a senior officer position, however, many years of experience are usually necessary before an employee can acquire the necessary knowledge of the bank’s operations and customers and of the community. The number of bank officers is expected to in crease very rapidly through the mid-1970’s. Many new positions will be created by the expected ex pansion of banking activities. Others will develop because the increasing use of electronic com puters enables banks to analyze and plan banking operations more extensively and to provide new kinds of services. In addition, because bank offi cers are somewhat older, on the average, than most employee groups, a large number of addi tional officers will be needed each year to replace those who retire, or leave their jobs for other reasons. The American Bankers Association estimates that a total of 6,000 officer positions will become available each year, through growth and replacement needs. Most of the officer positions which become avail able will be filled by promoting people who have already acquired experience in banking opera tions. Competition for such promotions is likely to remain keen, particularly in large banks. Col lege graduates who meet the standards for execu tive trainees should find good opportunities for entry positions, however. Earnings According to a private survey conducted in 1963-64, large banks, insurance companies, and other financial institutions paid salaries generally ranging from $400 to $525 or more a month to new executive trainees who were graduates with majors in business administration or in the liberal arts. Accounting majors were usually hired to begin at somewhat higher salaries—between $425 and $550 a month. 620 The salaries of senior bank officers may be several times as great as these starting salaries. For officers, as well as for other employees, salaries are likely to be lower in small towns than in big city banks. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK See introductory section of this chapter for in formation on Where Employed, Earnings and Working Conditions, and Where To Go for More Information, and for additional information on Training. CIVIL AVIATIO N OCCUPATIONS The rapid development of air transportation in the past two decades has greatly increased the mobility of the population and has created many thousands of job opportunities in civil aviation activities. By late 1964, about 315,000 persons were employed in this field in a variety of in teresting and responsible occupations. Nature and Location of Civil Aviation Activities Civil aviation services are provided by many different types of organizations for a variety of •purposes. The scheduled airlines (those which operate regularly scheduled flights over pre scribed routes) provide transportation for pas sengers, cargo, and mail. Other airlines, called supplemental airlines, provide charter and nonscheduled service for passengers and cargo. A wide range of other civil aviation activities are conducted in the field of general aviation, includ ing the use of company-owned aircraft to trans port employees or cargo (business flying); spray ing insecticides, fertilizers, or seed on land, crops, or forest (crop dusting) ; charter service in small aircraft (air-taxi operations); and inspection of pipelines and powerlines for breaks. In addition to these flying activities, general aviation includes maintenance and repair activities conducted by repair stations licensed by the Government to work on general aviation aircraft (certificated repair stations). Civil aviation activities also include the reg ulatory functions of the Federal Aviation Agency (FAA), and the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) —both Federal Government agencies. The FAA develops air safety regulations, inspects and tests airplanes and airline facilities, provides ground electronic guidance equipment, and gives tests for licenses to personnel such as pilots, copilots, flight engineers, dispatchers, and airplane mechanics. The CAB establishes policy concerning matters such as airline rates and routes and investigates accidents. The 49 scheduled airlines were the largest em ployers of air transportation workers in late 1964, with about 180,000 workers. Of these, about 80 percent (150,000) were employed to fly and serv ice aircraft and passengers on domestic routes— between cities in the United States. About 25,000 other workers handled the operations of the scheduled airlines which flew international routes. The remaining workers were employed by airlines that handled only cargo. More than half of all scheduled airline employees worked for the four largest domestic airlines. In addition to scheduled airline employees, several thousand workers—all in ground occupa tions—were employed in the United States by foreign airlines that operate between overseas points and the United States. An additional 2,300 workers were employed by 14 supplemental airlines. These workers were in many of the same occupations as scheduled airline workers. An estimated 85,000 workers—nearly all pilots, copilots, and airplane mechanics—were employed in general aviation operations to fly and service the almost equal number of aircraft used in late 1964. Nearly 40 percent of these workers (31,000) were employed in certificated repair stations. An other 25 percent (20,000) were engaged in business flying. About 13,000 worked for firms that gave flight instruction; approximately 4,600 were in crop dusting activities; and nearly 14,000 were employed by for-hire operators of small passenger and cargo aircraft. The remaining 3,500 workers were in other general aviation activities, such as test flying or inspecting pipelines for breaks. The FAA employed about 45,000 people and the CAB about 830, in late 1964. The largest group of FAA employees worked mainly in occupations relating to the direction of air traffic, and the installation and maintenance of mechanical and electronic equipment used to control traffic. CAB workers were employed mainly in administrative 621 622 and clerical jobs concerned with the economic regulation of the airlines, supervision of inter national air transportation matters, promotion of air safety, and investigation of accidents. Civil aviation workers are employed in every State, but an estimated half work in five States: New York, California, Florida, Illinois, and Texas. Some of the reasons for the employment concentration in these States are their large pop ulations and geographic areas, their large num bers of airports and aircraft registrations, and the existence of major airline aircraft overhaul bases. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK CHART 32 SCHEDULED AIRLINES EMPLOY MORE MECHANICS THAN FLIGHT PERSO NNEL..... T h o u s a n d s of wo rk e rs with sc h e d u le d airlines, 1964* 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Flight Pilots and Stewards, stewardesses, Flight p e r s o n n e l Civil Aviation Occupations In addition to employing the largest number of air transportation workers, the scheduled air lines employ workers in the widest variety of occupations. Of the 180,000 employed by the scheduled airlines in late 1964, about 4 out of 5 worked in ground occupations. Mechanics and other aircraft maintenance per sonnel was the largest occupational category, with 20 percent of scheduled airline employment. (See chart 32.) About 16 percent of all scheduled air line workers were traffic agents and clerks, and almost 3 percent worked at airline ground stations as communications personnel and dispatchers. The remaining workers in ground occupational cate gories (about 44 percent) were employed as cargo and freight handlers, custodial and other aircraftservicing personnel, and office, administrative, and professional personnel. Pilots and copilots was the largest flight occu pation, with over 8 percent of airline workers; stewardesses and stewards comprised another 8 percent; and flight engineers accounted for the remainder. More than 50 percent of general aviation workers were pilots or copilots, and about 40 per cent were airplane mechanics. The great majority of the mechanics were employed in certificated repair stations. The remaining general aviation workers were employed in clerical or administra tive jobs. In the Federal Government, the largest group of civil aviation workers were in air traffic servic ing work. About 17,200 workers were employed in this category. Most of these workers—about 12,500—were air traffic controllers. Another group of about 4,000 workers were flight service station specialists. A detailed description of the duties, training, qualifications, employment outlook, earnings, and working conditions for each of the following air transportation jobs appear in the later sec tions of this chapter: (1) pilots and copilots, (2) flight engineers, (3) stewardesses, (4) airplane mechanics, (5) airline dispatchers, (6) air traffic controllers, (7) ground radio operators and tele typists, and (8) traffic agents and clerks. Employment Outlook The total number of workers in civil aviation occupations is expected to increase rapidly during the 1965-75 decade, but the rates of growth among the major civil aviation divisions will differ. General aviation employment is expected to show a rapid rise, mainly because the anticipated greater demand for general aviation services will lead to an increase in the number of aircraft. About 120,000 general aviation aircraft will be flying by 1975—an increase of about 35,000 over the number in 1964. Most of the employment in crease will occur in business flying, which will require about 15,000 new employees, mainly well 623 CIVIL AVIATION qualified pilots. Nearly as many new job openings will occur in air-taxi operations, largely because of the demand for air transportation in cities not serviced by the scheduled airlines. These jobs will be about equally divided between qualified pilots and co-pilots, and airplane mechanics. Another 10,000 job openings—practically all for airplane mechanics—will occur in certificated repair sta tions because of the need. for additional main tenance and repair services by a larger general aviation fleet. A few thousand additional em ployees—mainly pilots—will be needed by crop dusters, and operators who give flight instruction and engage in patrol and survey flying. Little or no change is expected in Federal Gov ernment employment of civil aviation workers. Openings that occur will be primarily those re sulting from retirements, deaths, and transfers to other fields of work. While employment declines may occur in some occupations, increasing employ ment opportunities are expected for those who maintain and repair the increasing array of visual and electronic aids to air traffic. Airline employment growth will result from anticipated increases in passenger and cargo traffic. It is estimated that, by 1975, the scheduled airlines will fly about twice the number of revenue passenger miles flown in 1964. An even larger increase is expected in air cargo traffic which, how ever, represents a relatively small percent of total traffic. Among the factors which will contribute to increased air travel are a larger population, increased consumer purchasing power, the trend toward longer vacations, the greater use of air travel by businessmen, faster flights on jet aircraft which will save considerable time in long-distance travel, and more economy-class passenger services. As in the past, airline occupations will grow at different rates. Occupations such as stewardess and cargo and baggage handler, which provide services for passengers and cargo directly, will grow very rapidly. However, employment in these occupations is not expected to increase as fast as the increases in traffic for several reasons. For example, more widespread installation of me chanical equipment, such as conveyors, will permit airlines to move greatly increased amounts of baggage and cargo without comparable growth in employment of baggage and cargo handlers. Economy flights, which offer fewer in-flight serv778—316 O— 65— —41 ices than first-class flights, will permit airlines to fly greatly increased numbers of passengers with out a corresponding rise in employment of flight attendants. Some airline occupational groups, particularly those involving the operation and maintenance of aircraft, are expected to show little or no employ ment growth over the decade. The continuing replacement of piston-engine aircraft by faster, higher capacity jet planes and the anticipated in troduction of supersonic planes in the early 1970’s will enable the airlines to handle substantially more traffic without a corresponding increase in equipment or workers. However, even in these occupations, continuing replacement needs because of retirements and deaths will result in thousands of job opportunities for new workers annually in the next decade. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings among various civil aviation occupa tions vary greatly because of such factors as skill requirements, length of experience, and amount of responsibility for safe and efficient operations. Within particular occupations, earnings vary according to the type of civil aviation activity. The statements cn individual occupations which follow contain detailed discussions of earnings. As a rule, airline employees and their immediate families are entitled to a limited amount of free or reduced-fare transportation on their companies’ flights, depending on the employees’ length of service. In addition, they may fly at greatly re duced rates with other airlines. Flight personnel may be away from their home bases about a third or more of the time. When they are away from home, the airlines either provide living accommo dations or pay expenses. Airlines operate flights at all hours of the day and night. Personnel in some occupations, there fore, often have irregular work schedules. Maxi mum hours of work per month for workers in flight occupations have been established by the FA A as a safety precaution against fatigue. In addition, union-management agreements often stipulate payment for a minimum number of hours each month, to guarantee a substantial proportion of normal earnings. Ground personnel who work as dispatchers, mechanics, traffic agents, communications oper 624 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ators, and in administrative jobs, usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week. Their working hours, however, often include nights, weekends, or holi days. Air traffic controllers work a 5-day, 40hour week; they are periodically assigned to night, weekend, and holiday work. Ground per sonnel generally receive extra pay for overtime work, or compensatory time off. In domestic operations, airline employees usu ally receive 2 or 3 weeks’ vacation with pay, depending upon length of service. Most flight personnel in international operations get a month’s vacation. Employees also receive paid sick leave and retirement, insurance, and long-term dis ability hospitalization benefits. FAA and CAB employees are entitled to the same benefits as other Federal personnel, including from 13 to 26 days of vacation leave and 13 days of sick leave a year, as well as retirement, life insurance, and health benefits. Many of the workers in air transportation are union members. These unions are identified in the statements covering the individual occupations. Where To G o for More Information Information about job openings in a particular airline and the qualifications required may be obtained by writing to the personnel manager of the company. Addresses of individual companies are available from the Air Transport Association of America, 1000 Connecticut Ave. NW., Wash ington, D.C., 20036. Inquiries regarding jobs with the Federal Avia tion Agency should be addressed to the Personnel Officer, Federal Aviation Agency, at any of the following addresses: Eastern Region______ Federal Building, John F. Kennedy International Air port, Jamaica, Long Island, N.Y. 11430 Southwest Region. ___ P.O. Box 1689, Fort Worth, Tex. 76101. Southern Region_____P.O. Box 20636, Atlanta, Ga. 30320. Central Region______ 4825 Troost Ave., Kansas City, Mo. 64110. Western Region_____ 5641 West Manchester Ave., Box 90007, Airport Station, Los Angeles, Calif. 90009. Alaskan Region______ 632 Sixth Ave., Anchorage, Alaska 99501. Pacific Region_______ P.O. Box 4009, Honolulu, Hawaii 96812. Information concerning FAA-approved schools offering training for work as an airplane mechanic, pilot, or in other technical fields related to aviation may be obtained from the Information Retrieval Branch, Federal Aviation Agency Library, HQ630, Federal Aviation Agency, Washington, D.C. 20553. Pilots and Copilots (2d ed. D.O.T. 0-41.10 and .12) (3d ed. D.O.T. 196.168; .228, .268, and .283) Nature of Work The men who have the responsibility for flying a multimillion dollar plane and transporting as many as 125 passengers safely are the pilot and copilot. The pilot (called “captain” by the air lines) operates the controls and performs other tasks necessary for getting a plane into the air, keeping it on course, and landing it safely. He supervises a crew which usually includes—in addition to the copilot—a flight engineer and flight attendants. The copilot is second in com mand. He is present on airline flights to assist the captain in air-to-ground communications, monitoring flight and engine instruments, and in operating the controls of the plane. Both captain and copilot must do a great deal of planning before their plane may take off. Before each flight, they confer with the company meteorologist about weather conditions and, in cooperation with the airline dispatcher, they prepare a flight plan along a route and at alti tudes which offer the best weather and wind conditions so that a safe, fast, and smooth flight will be possible. This flight plan must be approved by Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) air traffic control personnel. The copilot plots the course to be flown and computes the flying time between 625 CIVIL AVIATION Flight crew operates jet airliner controls. various points. Just prior to takeoff, both men check the operation of each engine and the func tioning of the plane’s many instruments, controls, and electronic and mechanical systems. During the flight, the captain or copilot reports, by radio, to ground control stations, regarding their altitude, air speed, weather conditions and other flight details. The captain also supervises the navigation for the flight and keeps close watch on the many instruments which indicate the plane’s fuel load and the condition of the engines, controls, electronic equipment, and landing gear. The copilot assists in these duties. Before landing, the captain or the copilot per form such duties as rechecking the operation of the landing gear and requesting landing clearance from air traffic control personnel. If visibility is limited when a landing approach is being made, the captain may have to rely primarily on instru ments, such as the altimeter, air speed indicator, 626 artificial horizon, and gyro compass. Both men must complete a flight report and file trip records in the airline office when the flight is ended. Some pilots, employed by airlines as “check pilots”, make at least two flights a year with each captain to observe his proficiency and adherence to FA A flight regulations and company policies. Airlines employ some pilots to fly planes leased to private corporations. Airlines also employ pilots as instructors to train both new and experi enced pilots in the use of new equipment. Although pilots employed in general aviation usually fly planes smaller than those used by the scheduled airlines, their preflight and flight duties are similar to those of airline pilots. These pilots seldom have the assistance of flight crews. In addition to flying, they may perform minor main tenance and repair work on their planes. In some cases, such as in business flying, they may mingle with and act as host to their passengers. Pilots who are self-employed, such as air-taxi operators, in addition to flying and doing some maintenance work, have duties similar to those of other small businessmen. Where Employed The scheduled airlines employed nearly 15,000 pilots and copilots in late 1964. In addition, ap proximately 700 pilots were employed by the certificated supplemental airlines (airlines that provide charter and nonscheduled service). An estimated 47,000 pilots and copilots (includ ing some who work part-time) were employed in general aviation in late 1964. Several thousand worked in business flying and in for-hire opera tions. About 4,500 pilots were employed as crop dusters. The Federal Government employed ap proximately 900 pilots (over half in the FAA) to perform a variety of services, such as examining applicants for pilots’ licenses, inspecting naviga tion facilities along Federal airways, testing planes that are newly designed or have major modifications, enforcing game laws, fighting forest fires, and patrolling national boundaries. In addi tion, several thousand pilots were employed by companies to inspect pipelines and installations for oil companies, and to provide other aerial services such as private flight instruction, and flights for sightseeing, sky writing, and aerial OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK photography. A small number worked for air craft manufacturers as test pilots. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To do any type of commercial flying, pilots or copilots must be licensed by the FAA. Airline captains must have an “airline transport pilot’s” license. Copilots, and most pilots employed in general aviation, must have a “commercial air plane pilot’s” license. In addition, pilots who are subject to FAA instrument flight regulations or who anticipate flying on instruments when the weather is bad, must have an “instrument rating.” Pilots and copilots must also have a rating for the class of plane they can fly (single-engine, multiengine, or seaplane) and for the specific type of plane they can fly, such as DC-6 or Boeing 707. To qualify for a license as a commercial pilot, applicants must be at least 18 years old and have at least 200 hours of flight experience. To obtain an instrument rating, applicants must have at least 40 hours of instrument time, 20 hours of which must be in actual flight. Applicants for an airline transport pilots’ license must be at least 23 years old and have a total of 1,200 hours of flight time during the previous 8 years, including night flying and instrument flying time. Before a person may receive any license or rating, he must pass a physical examination and a written test given by the FAA covering such subjects as principles of safe flight operations, Civil Air Regulations, navigation principles, radio operation, and meterology. He must also submit proof that he has completed the minimum flight-time requirements and, in a practical test, demonstrate flying skill and technical competence. His certification as a professional pilot remains in effect as long as he can pass an annual physical examination and the periodic tests of his flying skills, required by Government regulation. An airline transport pilot’s license expires when the pilot reaches his 60th birthday. A young man may obtain the knowledge, skills, and flight experience necessary to become a pilot through military service or from a private flying school. Graduation from flying schools approved by the FAA satisfies the flight experience require ments for licensing. Applicants who have appro priate military flight training and experience are required to pass only the Civil Air Regulations 627 CIVIL AVIATION examination if they apply for a license within a year after leaving the service. Those trained in the armed services have the added opportunity to gain experience and accumulate flying time on large aircraft similar to those used by the airlines. As a rule, applicants for a copilot job with the airlines must be between 20 and 35 years old, although preference is given to applicants who are between ages 21 and 28. They must be 5 feet 7 inches to 6 feet 4 inches tall, and weigh between 140 and 210 pounds. All applicants must be high school graduates; some airlines require 2 years of college and prefer to hire college graduates. Physical requirements for pilots, especially in scheduled airline employment, are very high. They must have normal (20/20) vision without the aid of glasses, good hearing, outstanding physical stamina, and no physical handicaps that would prevent quick reactions. Since flying large air craft places great responsibilities upon a pilot, the airlines use psychological tests to determine an applicant’s alertness, emotional stability and maturity, and his ability to assume responsibility, command respect, and make quick decisions and accurate judgments under pressure. Men hired by the scheduled airlines (and by some of the larger supplemental airlines) usually start as copilots, although they may begin as flight engineers. An applicant for a copilot’s job with a scheduled airline often must have more than the FA A minimum qualifications for commercial pilot licensing. For example, although the FAA re quires only 200 flying hours to qualify for such a license, the airlines generally require from 500 to 1,000 flying hours. Airlines also require a “re stricted” radio-telephone operator permit, issued by the Federal Communications Commission, which allows the holder to operate the plane’s radio. Pilots employed in business flying are required to have a commercial pilot’s license. In addition, some employers require their pilots to have instru ment ratings, and some require pilot applicants to have air transport pilot ratings. Because of the close relationship between pilots and their pas sengers, employers look for job applicants with pleasant personalities. All newly hired airline copilots go through company orientation courses. In addition, some airlines give beginning copilots or flight engi neers from 3 to 10 weeks of training on company planes before assigning them to a scheduled flight. Trainees also receive classroom instruction in subjects such as flight theory, radio operation, meteorology, Civil Air Kegulations, and airline operations. The beginning copilot is generally permitted only limited responsibility, such as operating the flight controls in good weather over a route that is easy to navigate. As he gains experience and skill, his responsibilities are gradually increased and he is promoted to copilot on larger, more modern aircraft. When he has proved his skill, accumulated sufficient experience and seniority, and passed the test for an airline transport pilot’s license, a copilot may advance to captain as open ings arise. A minimum of 2 or 3 years’ service is required for promotion but, in actual practice, advancement often takes at least 5 to 10 years or longer. The new captain works first on his air line’s older equipment and, as openings arise, he is advanced to larger, more modern aircraft. A few opportunities exist for captains with administrative ability to advance to chief pilot, flight operations manager, and other supervisory and executive jobs. Most airline captains, how ever, spend their entire careers flying. As they increase their seniority, they obtain a better selec tion of flight routes, types of aircraft, and sched ules which offer higher earnings. Some pilots may go into business for themselves if they have ade quate financial resources and business ability. They may operate their own flying schools or airtaxi and other aerial services. Pilots may also shift to administrative and inspection jobs in air craft manufacturing and Government aviation agencies, or become dispatchers for an airline when they are no longer able to fly. Employment Outlook Little change in the employment of airline pilots is expected in the next 10 years. Over the 1965-75 decade, however, several thousand job openings for qualified applicants will result from the need to replace pilots who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. The number of pilots will be affected by the larger, faster, and more effi cient jet planes being used which enable a pilot to fly many more passenger and cargo miles than he can in piston aircraft. Thus, although the number 628 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK of passenger and cargo miles is expected to con tinue to grow in the next decade, employment of pilots will remain about the same. The increasing use of jet aircraft in the immediate future and the expected introduction of supersonic transport planes in the early 1970’s, will result in little or no change in employment of airline pilots in the longer run. Employment of pilots outside of the scheduled airlines is expected to continue to grow rapidly, particularly in business flying, crop dusting, airtaxi operations, and patrol and survey flying. Growth in these areas will stem from expansion in the use of aircraft to perform these general aviation activities. Earnings and Working Conditions Captains and copilots are among the highest paid wage earners in the Nation. Those employed by the scheduled airlines averaged about $18,800 a year in domestic air transportation and nearly $22,000 in international operations, in late 1964. Most of the senior captains on large aircraft earned wTell over $25,000 a year; those assigned to jet aircraft may earn more than $35,000. Pilots employed by the scheduled airlines generally earn more than those employed elsewhere, although pilots who work for supplemental airlines may earn almost as much. Some experienced copilots were earning as much as $20,000 a year in domestic flying and more than $22,000 in international flying in late 1964. The earnings of captains and copilots depend on factors such as the type, size, and speed of the planes they fly, the number of hours and miles flown, and their length of service. They receive additional pay for night and international flights. Captains and airline copilots with at least 3 years of service are guaranteed minimum monthly earn ings which represent a substantial proportion of their earnings. Under the Federal Aviation Act, airline pilots cannot fly more than 85 hours a month; some union-management contracts, however, provide for 75-hour a month maximums. Though pilots and copilots, in practice, fly approximately 60 hours a month, their total duty hours, including before- and after-flight activities and layovers before return flights, usually exceed 100 hours each month. Some pilots prefer the shorter distance flying usually associated with the local airlines and com mercial flying activities such as air-taxi opera tions, because they are likely to spend less time away from their home bases and fly mostly dur ing the daytime. These pilots, however, have the added strain of making more takeoffs and land ings daily. Although flying does not involve much physical effort, the pilot is often subject to stress because of his great responsibility. He must be constantly alert and prepared to make decisions quickly. Poor weather conditions can also make his work more difficult. Most airline pilots are members of the Inter national Airline Pilots Association. Some are members of the Allied Pilots Association. Where To G o for More Information International Air Line Pilots Association, 55th St. and Cicero Ave., Chicago, 111. 60600. See the introductory section for additional sources of information and for general informa tion on supplementary benefits and working conditions. Flight Engineers (2d ed. D.O.T. 5-80.100) (3d ed D.O.T. 621.281) Nature of Work and Where Employed The flight engineer monitors the operation of the different mechanical and electrical devices aboard the airplane. Before takeoffs, he may inspect the tires and other outside parts of the plane and make sure that the plane’s fuel tanks have been properly filled. In the plane, he assists the pilot and copilot in making preflight checks of instruments and equipment. Once the plane is in the air, the flight engineer watches and oper ates many instruments and devices to check the performance of the engines and the air-condi 629 CIVIL AVIATION tioning, pressurizing, and electrical systems. In addition, he keeps records of engine performance and fuel consumption. He reports any mechani cal difficulties to the pilot and, if possible, makes emergency repairs. Upon landing, he makes certain that mechanical troubles that may have developed are repaired by a mechanic. Flight engineers employed by the smaller airlines may have to make minor repairs themselves at those few airports where mechanics are not stationed. Flight engineers are employed on all commer cial planes that have a maximum takeoff weight of more than 80,000 pounds, which includes almost all three- and four- engine planes and some twoengine jet planes. In late 1964, about 4,500 workers were employed to perform flight engi neers’ duties. Most of them worked for the major scheduled airlines and were stationed in or near large cities where long-distance flights originate and terminate. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All flight engineers must be licensed by the Federal Aviation Agency (FAA). A man can qualify for a flight engineer’s certificate if he has had 2 years of training or 3 years of work experience in the maintenance, repair, and over haul of aircraft and engines, including a mini mum of 6 months’ training or a year of experi ence on four-engine piston and jet planes. He may also qualify with at least 200 hours of flight time as a captain of a four-engine piston or jet plane, or with 100 hours of experience as a flight engineer in the Armed Forces. The third, and most common, method of qualifying is to complete a course of ground and flight instruction approved by the FAA. In addition to such experience or training, an applicant for a license must pass a written test on flight theory, engine and aircraft performance, fuel requirements, weather as it affects engine operation, and maintenance procedures. In a practical flight test on a four-engine plane, he must demonstrate his skill in performing preflight duties and normal and emergency in-flight duties and procedures. He must also pass a rigid physical examination every year. Most scheduled airlines now require applicants for flight engineer posi tions to have a commercial pilot’s license. This qualification is not generally required by the nonscheduled airlines. Young men can acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to qualify as airline flight engi neers through military training as airplane pilots, mechanics, or flight engineers. They may also attend a civilian ground school and then gain experience as an airplane mechanic. For jobs as flight engineers, airlines generally prefer men 21 to 35 years of age, from 5 feet 7 inches to 6 feet 4 inches tall, and in excellent physical condition. They require a high school education but prefer men with 2 or more years of college. Airlines prefer to hire young men who already have a flight engineer certificate and a commercial pilot’s license, although they do select applicants who have only a commercial pilot’s license and give them additional training. A flight engineer can become a chief flight engineer for his airline. Advancement possibilities for a flight engineer usually depend on his qualifi cations and the seniority provisions established by airline union-management agreements. The flight engineer with pilot qualifications may advance on the basis of his seniority to copilot, and then follow the regular line of advancement open to other copilots. Flight engineers without pilot qualifications can advance from less desirable to more desirable routes and schedules as they gain seniority. Employment Outlook Employment of flight engineers is expected to increase slightly during the 1965-75 decade as some piston-engine planes, not now requiring flight engineers, are replaced by heavier, jet-powered aircraft. (This projection assumes that the sched uled airline flight crew on airplanes weighing more than 80,000 pounds will be made up of three men. In most cases the third crew member will be a qualified pilot serving as a flight engineer until his promotion to copilot.) However, increasing use will be made of faster, more efficient jet planes which allow a flight engineer to fly more pas senger and cargo miles in the course of a working month than he could in a piston-engine plane. The expected introduction of supersonic transport planes by the early 1970's may also restrict employ ment growth. 630 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of flight engineers in late 1964 ranged from $550 to $600 a month for new em ployees to $1,730 for experienced flight engineers on jet aircraft on international flights. Many flight engineers earned between $1,000 and $1,500 a month. Average monthly earnings for all flight engineers in domestic operations was nearly $1,200; those employed on international flights averaged nearly $1,350. The earnings of flight engineers depend upon factors such as size, speed, and type of the plane; hours and miles flown; length of service; and the type of flight (such as night or international). Engineers are guaran teed minimum monthly earnings, which repre sent a substantial proportion of their earnings. Their flight time is restricted, under the Federal Aviation Act, to 85 hours a month. Flight engi neers in international operations are limited flying to 100 hours a month, 300 hours every 90 days, or 350 hours every 90 days, depending on the size of the flight crew. Many flight engineers belong to the Flight En gineers’ International Association. Some are rep resented by the Air Line Pilots Association and some by the International Association of Ma chinists and Aerospace Workers. Where To G o for More Information Flight Engineers’ International Association, 100 Indiana Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20001. See the introductory section for additional sources of information and for general informa tion on supplementary benefits and working conditions. Stewardesses (2d ed. D.O.T. 2-25.37) (3d ed. D.O.T. 352.878) Nature of Work and Where Employed Stewardesses or stewards (sometimes called flight attendants) are aboard almost all passen ger planes operated by the commercial airlines. Their job is to make the passengers’ flight safe, comfortable, and enjoyable. Like other flight personnel, they are responsible to the captain. Before each flight, the stewardess attends the briefing of the flight crew. She sees that the passenger cabin is in order, that supplies and emergency passenger gear are aboard, and that necessary food and beverages are in the galley. As the passengers come aboard, she greets them, checks their tickets, and assists them with their coats and small luggage. On some flights, she may sell tickets. During the flight, the stewardess makes cer tain that seat belts are fastened and gives safety instructions when required. She answers, ques tions about the flight and weather, distributes reading matter and pillows, helps care for small children and babies, and keeps the cabin neat. On some flights, she heats and serves meals that have been previously cooked. On other flights she may prepare, sell, and serve cocktails. After the flight, she completes flight reports. On international flights, she also gives customs information, instructs passengers on the use of emergency equipment, and repeats instructions in an appro priate foreign language to accommodate foreign passengers. About 13,000 stewardesses and 1,000 stewards worked for the scheduled airlines in late 1964. About 80 percent were employed by the domestic airlines, and the rest worked for international lines. Nearly all stewards were employed on overseas flights. Airliners generally carry one to six flight attendants, depending on the size of the plane and what proportion of the flight is economy or first-class. Most flight attendants are stationed in major cities at the airlines’ main bases. A few who serve on international flights are based in foreign countries. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because stewardesses are in constant associa tion with passengers, the airlines place great stress on hiring young women who are attractive, poised, tactful, and resourceful. As a rule, appli cants must be 20 to 27 years old, 5 feet 2 inches to 5 feet 9 inches tall, with weight in proportion to height (but not to exceed 140 pounds), and in excellent health. They must also have a pleas ant speaking voice and good vision. Most major 631 CIVIL AVIATION airlines require that stewardesses be unmarried and require them to resign when they marry or shortly afterwards. Stewardesses who can no longer qualify for flying, such as those who marry, may obtain jobs in other departments, such as sales or public relations. Applicants for stewardess’ jobs must have at least a high school education. Those with 2 years of college, nurses’ training, or business experi ence in dealing with the public are preferred. Stewardesses who work for international airlines generally must be able to speak an appropriate foreign language fluently. Most large airlines give newly hired stew ardesses about 5 weeks’ training in their own schools. Girls may receive free transportation to the training centers and also may receive an allowance while in attendance. Training includes classes in flight regulations and duties, company operations and schedules, emergency procedures and first aid, and personal grooming. Addi tional courses in passport and customs regula tions are given trainees for the international routes. Toward the end of their training, stu dents go on practice flights and perform their duties under actual flight conditions. A few airlines which do not operate their own schools may employ graduates who have paid for their own training at private steward esses’ schools. Girls interested in becoming stew ardesses should check with the airline of their choice before entering a private school to be sure they have the necessary qualifications for the airline and that the school’s training is acceptable. Immediately upon completing their training, stewardesses report for work at one of their air line’s main bases. They serve on probation for about 6 months, and an experienced stewardess usually works with them on their first flights. Before they are assigned to a regular flight, they may work as reserve flight attendants, during which time they serve on extra flights or replace stewardesses who are sick or on vacation. Stewardesses may advance to jobs as first stewardess or purser, supervising stewardess, stewardess instructor, or recruiting representa tive. Advancement opportunities often come quickly because stewardesses work only about 2 or 3 years, on the average, and then resign to get married. Employment Outlook Serving meals is one of the many flight duties of a stewardess. Young women will have several thousand op portunities to get jobs as stewardesses each year in the immediate future and in the longer run. Most of these openings will occur as girls marry or leave the occupation for other reasons. (About 40 percent of the employed stewardesses leave their jobs each year.) In addition, total employment of stewardesses will grow rapidly as a result of the anticipated large increase in passenger traffic. Young women interested in becoming steward esses should realize that thousands of girls apply for this type of work each year, because of the glamour attached to the occupation. Despite the large number of applicants, the airlines find it difficult to obtain enough young women who can 632 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK meet their high standards of attractiveness, per sonality, and intelligence. Earnings and Working Conditions An examination of union-management con tracts covering several large domestic and inter national airlines indicates that in 1965 beginning stewardesses earned approximately $410 to $445 a month for 85 hours of flying time. Steward esses with 2 years’ experience earned approxi mately $475 to $490 a month. Those assigned to piston flights usually earned approximately $30 a month less. Stewardesses employed on domestic flights averaged $425 a month in late 1964; those work ing on international flights averaged about $525. Since commercial airlines operate around the clock, 365 days a year, stewardesses usually work irregular hours. They may work at night, on holidays, and on weekends. They are usually limited to 85 hours of flight time a month. In addition, they devote up to 35 hours a month to ground duties. As a result of irregular hours and limitations on the amount of flying time, some stewardesses may have 15 or more days off each month. Of course, some time off may occur between flights while away from home. Airlines generally use the seniority bidding system for assigning home bases, flight schedules, and routes. Stewardesses with the longest serv ice, therefore, get the more desirable flights. The stewardess’ occupation is exciting and glamorous, with opportunities to meet interesting passengers and to see new places. However, the work can be strenuous and trying. A stewardess may be on her feet during a large part of the flight. She must remain pleasant and efficient during the entire flight, regardless of how tired she may be. Most flight attendants are members of either the Air Line Stewards and Stewardesses Associa tion of the Transport Workers Union of America, or the Stewards and Stewardesses Division of the International Air Line Pilots Association. See introductory section for general informa tion on supplementary benefits and working conditions. Airplane Mechanics (2d ed. D.O.T. 5-80.100, .120 and .130) (3d ed. D.O.T. 621.281) Nature of Work Airplane mechanics have the important job of keeping airplanes operating safely and effi ciently. Mechanics employed by the airlines work either at the larger airline terminals mak ing emergency repairs on aircraft (line-mainte nance work) or at an airline main overhaul base where they make major repairs or perform the periodic inspections that are necessary on all aircraft. These mechanics may specialize in work on a particular part of the airplane such as pro pellers, landing gear, hydraulic equipment, air borne electronic communications and control equipment, instruments, or on sheet metal sections. They frequently take apart a complex airplane component, replace damaged or worn parts, put the component together, and test it to make sure that it is operating perfectly. A line-maintenance mechanic may be instructed by the flight engineer or lead mechanic as to the kinds of repairs to make, or he may examine the aircraft thoroughly to discover the cause of mal function. He then makes the necessary repairs or adjustments, or he may install a new part; for instance, he may replace an entire engine when it cannot be repaired quickly. Line-maintenance mechanics must be all-round mechanics able to make repairs on all parts of the plane. They may also have to do maintenance work such as changing spark plugs or adding fluid to a hy draulic system. Airplane mechanics employed in general avi ation usually do maintenance and repair work comparable with the work performed by linemaintenance mechanics. However, the planes which these mechanics service are smaller and less complex than those flown by the airlines. One mechanic frequently does the entire serv icing job with little supervision, and he works on many different types of planes and engines. Mechanics who work for employers such as cer- CIVIL AVIATION Line mechanics check landing gear on a jet aircraft. tificated supplemental airlines, air-taxi operators, and independent repair shops may also do over haul work. Independent repair shops usually specialize in engine, instrument, or airframe over haul. (The airframe consists of the plane’s fuselage, wings, landing gear, flight controls, and other parts which are not part of the engine, propeller, or instruments.) Airplane mechanics use many different kinds of tools in their work. These may range from sim ple handtools, such as screwdrivers, wrenches and pliers, to large and expensive machines and equipment designed to diagnose troubles and help the mechanic correct them. Examples of such equipment are propeller grinding machines, electrical circuit testers, and magnetic and black light inspection equipment designed to detect flaws and cracks in metal parts. Where Employed Nearly 35,000 mechanics were employed by the scheduled airlines in late 1964. An estimated 28,000 mechanics and supervisory mechanics were employed by independent repair shops. A few thousand mechanics also were employed by cer tificated supplemental airlines, crop-dusting and air-taxi firms, and businesses that use their own planes to transport their key employees, or cargo. 633 Many other airplane mechanics work in aircraft manufacturing plants. (These workers, whose duties are somewhat different from those of air line mechanics, are discussed in the chapter on Occupations in the Aircraft, Missile, and Space craft Field.) About 15,000 civilian airplane mechanics were employed by the Air Force in late 1964. Another 11,500 worked for the Navy. The FAA employs several hundred skilled men with maintenance experience to inspect aircraft manufacturing plants; examine airline and other commercial flying organizations’ aircraft maintenance meth ods, training programs, and spare parts stock; and test applicants for FAA mechanic licenses. This agency also employs approximately 475 air plane mechanics to maintain its own planes. Most of these men are employed at the FAA Aero nautical Center in Oklahoma City. Some mechan ics are employed by other Government agencies, principally the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Most airline mechanics are employed in the larger cities on the main airline routes. Each airline usually has one main overhaul base where more than half of its mechanics are employed. Large concentrations of mechanics are employed in cities such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Miami, all of which are important domestic and international air traffic centers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Mechanics responsible for any repair or main tenance operation must be licensed by the FAA as either an “airframe mechanic” (to work on the plane’s fuselage, covering surface, landing gear, and control surfaces such as rudder or ailerons) ; “power-plant mechanic” (to work on the plane’s engines), “airframe and powerplant mechanic” (to work on all parts of the plane), or as a “repairman” who is authorized to make only specified repairs. Mechanics who maintain and repair electronic communications equipment are required to have at least a Federal Communi cations Commission Second Class Radio Tele phone Operator License. At least 18 months’ experience working with airframes or engines is required to obtain an air frame or powerplant license and at least 30 634 months’ experience working with both engines and airframes is required for the combined air frame and powerplant license. However, this experience is not required of graduates of mechanics’ schools approved by the FAA. In addition to meeting these requirements, appli cants must pass a written test and give a practi cal demonstration of their ability to do the work. Repairmen licenses are issued to mechanics who are able to perform those maintenance and repair operations for which their employers have received FAA authorization. Mechanics may prepare for the trade and their licenses by working as trainees or apprentices, or as helpers to experienced mechanics. The larger airlines train apprentices or trainees in a care fully planned 3- or 4-year program of instruction and work experience. Men who have learned air craft maintenance in the Armed Forces are usu ally given credit for this training towards the requirements of apprenticeship or other on-thejob training programs. For trainee or apprentice jobs, the airlines prefer men between the ages of 20 and 30 who are in good physical condition. Applicants should have a high school or trade school education, including courses in mathematics, physics, chem istry, and machine shop. Experience in auto motive repairs or other mechanical work is also helpful. Other mechanics prepare for their trade by graduating from an FAA approved mechanics school. Most of these schools have an 18- to 24month program. Several colleges and univer sities also offer 2-year programs that prepare the student for the FAA mechanic examinations and for jobs as engineering aids and research and development technicians in aircraft manufac turing. Mechanics are generally required to have their own handtools which they must pay for them selves. They usually acquire their tools gradually. Several advancement possibilities are avail able to skilled mechanics employed by the sched uled airlines. The line of advancement is usually mechanic, lead mechanic (or crew chief), inspec tor, lead inspector, shop foreman, and, in a few cases, supervisory and executive positions. In most shops, mechanics in the higher grade posi tions are required to have both airframe and OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK powerplant ratings. In many cases, the mechanic must pass a company examination before he is promoted. To qualify for jobs as FAA inspectors, mechanics must have broad experience in main tenance and overhaul work, including supervision over the maintenance of aircraft. Applicants for this job must also have both airframe and powerplant ratings or a combined rating. Employment Outlook The number of airplane mechanics employed by the scheduled airlines is not expected to change much during the 1965-75 decade. However, a few hundred job openings will result annually from the need to replace mechanics who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. The number of air plane mechanics depends primarily on the size of the airline fleet. During recent years, a large number of piston-engine planes have been re placed by faster, higher capacity jet planes. Because this trend is expected to continue, the size of the scheduled airline fleet will remain about the same in the decade ahead. The rapid growth anticipated in the amount of general aviation flying will lead to an increase in the number of planes. Therefore, an increase is expected in the number of mechanics employed in firms providing general aviation services and the independent repair shops that repair many of these aircraft. Employment opportunities for airplane me chanics in the Federal Government will depend largely on the size of the Government military aircraft program. Earnings and Working Conditions Mechanics employed by the scheduled domes tic and international airlines earned, on the aver age, $650 a month in late 1964. Other airplane mechanics generally had lower average earnings. Airline mechanics work in hangars or in other indoor areas, whenever possible. However, when repairs must be made quickly, which is sometimes the case in line-maintenance work, mechanics may work outdoors. Mechanics employed by most major airlines are covered by union agreements. Most of these 635 CIVIL AVIATION employees are members of the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers. Many others belong to the Transport Workers Union of America. See introductory section for sources of addi tional information and for general information on supplementary benefits and working condi tions. Airline Dispatchers (2d ed. D.O.T. 0-61.61) (3d ed. D.O.T. 912.168) Nature of Work and Where Employed Dispatchers (sometimes called flight superin tendents) are employed by the airlines to coordi nate flight schedules and operations within an assigned area and to make sure that all Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) and company flight and safety regulations are observed. After examining weather conditions, the dispatcher makes a pre liminary decision as to whether a flight may be safely undertaken. He frequently must arrange to notify the passengers and crew if there is any change from the scheduled departure time. The dispatcher confers with the captain about the quantity of fuel needed, the best route and alti tude at which the plane will fly, the total flying time, and the alternate fields that may be used if landing at the scheduled airport is hazardous. The dispatcher and the captain must agree on all details of the flight before the plane leaves the airport. In some instances, the dispatcher is also responsible for keeping records and checking such matters as the availability of aircraft and equipment; the weight and balance of loaded cargo; the amount of time flown by each plane; and the number of hours flown by each crew member based at his station. After the flight has begun, the dispatcher plots the plane’s progress as reported at regular inter vals by the captain by radio, and keeps the cap tain informed of changing weather and other conditions that affect his flight. The assistant dispatcher helps the dispatcher plot the progress of flights, secure weather infor mation, and handle communications with aircraft. In late 1964, only about 950 dispatchers and assistants were employed in scheduled domestic and international operations, primarily at large airports in the United States. An even smaller number worked for large certificated supple mental airlines and for private firms which offer dispatching services to small airlines. Airline dispatcher assists pilot in preflight planning. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Dispatchers are required to have an FAA dispatcher certificate. An applicant for such a certificate may qualify if he has spent at least a year engaged in dispatching work under the supervision of a certificated dispatcher. He may also qualify by completing an FAAapproved dispatcher’s course at a school or an airline training center. If an applicant has none of this schooling or experience, he may also qual ify if he has spent 2 of the previous 3 years in air traffic control work, or in such airline jobs as dispatch clerk, assistant dispatcher, or radio operator, or in similar work in military service. An applicant for an FAA dispatcher certifi cate must pass a written examination on subjects such as Civil Air Eegulations, weather analysis, 636 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK air-navigation facilities, radio procedures, and airport and airway traffic procedures. In an oral test, he also has to demonstrate his ability to interpret weather information, his knowledge of landing and cruising speeds and other aircraft operational characteristics, and his familiarity with airline routes and navigational facilities. A licensed dispatcher is checked periodically by his employer to make sure that he is maintaining the skills required by Federal regulations. All qualified dispatchers are given additional instruc tion by their airlines at special training centers so that they may become familiar with new flight procedures and with characteristics of new air craft. Each year he is also required to “fly the line” as an observer over the portion of the sys tem which he services, in order to maintain his first-hand familiarity with airline routes and flight operations. For assistant dispatcher jobs, which may not require certification, airlines prefer men who have at least 2 years of college or an equivalent amount of time working in some phase of air transportation, such a communications. Prefer ence is given to college graduates who have had courses in mathematics, physics, and related subjects. Some experience in flying, meteorology, or business administration is also helpful. Most airlines fill assistant dispatcher positions by promotion or transfer from within the com pany. Men are preferred who have had long experience in ground flight operations work. As a result, most openings are filled by men who have been dispatch clerks, meteorologists, or radio operators; a few jobs are filled by men who have been pilots. 1965-75 decade. Most new workers in this occupa tion will be hired as assistant dispatchers or dis patch clerks. Job openings for dispatchers will be filled mainly by promoting or transferring ex perienced persons already employed by the air lines. The need for some additional dispatchers will result from the increase in air traffic, the addi tion and extension of routes, and the extra diffi culties in dispatching jet aircraft. However, these factors will be largely offset by improved radio and telephone communication facilities, which allow dispatchers at major terminals to dispatch aircraft at other airports and over large geo graphic areas. Foreign-flag airlines, which fly between overseas points and cities in the United States, will also provide a few job opportunities for dispatchers. Employment Outlook See introductory section for additional sources of information and for general information on supplementary benefits and working conditions. The number of workers in this very small occu pation is not expected to change much during the Earnings and Working Conditions Beginning dispatchers earned between $600 and $700 a month in late 1964. Dispatchers with 10 years’ service earned between $900 and $1,200 a month. Assistant dispatchers earned $475 and over a month to start and up to $680 a month after 3 years. Assistant dispatchers with FAA certifi cates may earn $25 a month extra. Most dis patchers are members of the Air Line Dispatchers Association. Where To G o for More Information Air Line Dispatchers Association, 243 West Maple Ave., Vienna, Va. 22180. A ir Traffic Controllers (3d ed. D.O.T. 193.168) Nature of Work Air traffic controllers are the guardians of the airways. These employees of the Federal Avia tion Agency (FAA) give instructions, advice, and information to pilots by radio in order to avoid collisions and minimize delays as planes fly between airports or in the vicinity of airports. When directing aircraft, traffic controllers must consider many factors including weather, geo graphy, the amount of traffic, and the size, speed, and other operating characteristics of aircraft. The men who control traffic in the areas around CIVIL AVIATION01 airports are known as airport traffic controllers (D.O.T. 193.168) ; those who guide planes be tween airports are called air-route traffic con trollers. Airport traffic controllers are stationed at airport control towers to give all pilots within the vicinity of the airport weather information, and take off and landing instructions, such as which approach and airfield runway to use and when to change altitude. They must simul taneously control several aircraft which appear as tiny bars on a radar scope. They talk on the radio first to one and then another of the pilots of these planes, remembering their numbers and their positions in the air, and give each of them different instructions. These workers also keep records of all messages received from aircraft, and operate runway lights and other airfield electronic equipment. They may also send and receive information to and from air-route traffic control centers about flights made over the airport. Air-route traffic controllers are stationed at air traffic control centers to coordinate the move ments of planes which are being flown “on instru ments.” They use the written flight plans which are filed by pilots and dispatchers before planes leave the airport. To make sure that planes remain on course, they check the progress of flights, using radar and other electronic equip ment and information received from the aircraft, other control centers and towers, and from FAA or airline communication stations. Where Employed About 12,500 air traffic controllers were employed by the FAA in late 1964. Of these, nearly half were airport traffic controllers, employed at airport control towers located at key airfields. A few of these jobs are located at towers and centers outside the United States. About 6,400 air-route traffic controllers worked in the 29 control centers scattered throughout the United States. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Applicants for positions as air-route or airport traffic controller must be at least 21 years of age and able to speak clearly and precisely. They 637 C o u r te sy o f th e F e d e r a l A v ia tio n A g e n c y A ir traffic controllers use radar and radio to guide aircraft. enter the field through the competitive Federal Civil Service system after passing a rigid physical examination, which they must pass every year. Applicants must have had from 21/2 to 3 years’ experience in one or a combination of several fields, such as military air traffic control experi ence, piloting, flight communication, radar opera tions, or dispatching. Successful applicants for airport traffic con troller jobs are given 8 weeks of formal training at the FAA aeronautical center in Oklahoma City, to learn the fundamentals of the airway system, Civil Air Regulations, and radar and air craft performance characteristics. Newly hired air-route traffic controllers are given a slightly longer period of basic instruction at the center where they will be working. After completing this training, both groups of controllers qualify for a basic air traffic control certificate. At an FAA control tower or center, they receive addi tional classroom instruction and on-the-job train ing to become familiar with specific traffic prob lems. After about 6 months, they generally qualify as assistant controllers and receive addi tional training. This training is designed to simulate emergency situations to determine the assistant controller’s emotional stability under pressure, stress, and strain. Only after he has demonstrated his ability to apply procedures, and to use available equipment under pressure and stress may he work as a controller. This usually OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 638 takes about a year from the time he becomes an assistant controller. Controllers can advance to the job of chief controller. After this promotion, they may ad vance to more responsible management jobs in air traffic control and to a few top administrative jobs in the FAA. Employment Outlook Total employment of air traffic controllers is expected to remain about the same over the 196575 decade. The number of airport traffic con trollers will grow moderately during this period while the number of air-route traffic controllers will decline slightly. Additional airport traffic controllers will be needed because of the anticipated growth in the number of airport towers that will be built to reduce the burden on existing facilities and to handle increasing airline traffic. More airport controllers will also be needed to provide services to the growing number of pilots outside of the airlines, such as those employed by companies to fly executives. A small number of additional air-route traffic controllers will be needed during the next few years to handle increases in air traffic. However, with the expected introduction of an automatic air traffic control system and a further decline in the number of control centers, employment of air-route traffic controllers is expected to decline in the longer run. A few hundred openings will occur each year for both kinds of controller jobs because of the need to replace those workers who leave for other work, retire, or die. Competition for jobs as air traffic controllers will continue to be great. For example, FAA estimates that there were approximately 3,500 qualified applicants for air-traffic controller jobs in 1964. By contrast, in that same year, only about 500 men began their careers as air traffic controllers. Earnings and Working Conditions The monthly salary for air traffic controllers during their first 6 to 12 months of training averaged about $460 in late 1964. After this training period, they receive $550 monthly during their first year as an assistant air traffic controller. Air-route traffic controllers can earn up to $1,000 a month depending on the type of work they do. Airport traffic controllers can earn from about $650 to over $1,000 per month depending on the amount of traffic handled at their facility and how long they have been on the job. In addition, all traffic controllers are eligible for periodic wage increases. In areas that handle extremely large volumes of air traffic, a chief controller may earn $1,370 and over a month. These employees receive the same annual, sick leave, and other benefits as other Federal workers. FAA controllers work a basic 40-hour week; however, they may work overtime, for which they receive equivalent time off or additional pay. Because control towers and centers must be oper ated 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, controllers are periodically assigned to night shifts on a rotating basis. However, an additional 10 percent is paid for work between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m. Because of the congestion in air traffic, a con troller works under great stress. He is responsi ble for directing as many as 10 to 20 or more aircraft at the same time. He must simultane ously check flights already under his control, know the flight schedules of planes approaching his area, and coordinate these patterns with other controllers as each flight passes from his control area to another. See introductory section for sources of addi tional information and for general information on supplementary benefits and working conditions. Ground Radio Operators and Teletypists (2d ed. D.O.T. 0-61.33 and 1-37.33) (3d ed. D.O.T. 193.282 and 203.588) Nature of Work Ground radio operators and teletypists trans mit highly important messages concerning weather conditions and other flight information between ground station personnel and flight per sonnel. Radio operators use a radio-telephone to send and receive spoken messages; some opera tors may use a radio-telegraph to transmit writ 639 CIVIL AVIATION ten messages. Radio operators occasionally may make minor repairs on their equipment. Tele typists transmit only written messages between ground personnel. They operate a teletype machine which has a keyboard similar to that of a typewriter. Flight service station specialists employed by the Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) do work similar to that of airline ground radio operators and teletypists. They use radio-telephones, radio telegraph, and teletype machines in their work. In addition to providing pilots with weather and navigational information before and during flights, these workers relay messages from air traffic control facilities to other ground station personnel, and to pilots. Where Employed More than 8,000 ground radio operators and teletypists were employed in air transportation in late 1964. Flight service station specialists employed by the FAA made up about half of these employees. The scheduled airlines em ployed about 3,700 radio operators and tele typists. An additional 350 were employed by a cooperative organization which offers the air lines, private pilots, and corporation aircraft its services over a centralized communications sys tem. A few hundred were employed by the Army and Navy in civilian communications occupations. FAA flight service station specialists work at stations scattered along the major airline routes; some stations are located in remote places. Ground radio operators and teletypists employed by the airlines work mostly at airports in or near large cites. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Applicants for airline radio operator jobs usually must have at least a third-class Federal Communications Commission radio-telephone or radio-telegraph operator’s permit. However, a second-class operator’s permit is preferred. They must also be high school graduates and have a good speaking voice, the ability to type at least 40 words a minute, and a basic knowledge of the language used in weather reports. Teletypists must be able to type at least 40 words a minute 778—316 O— 65------42 and have had training or experience in operating teletype equipment. Applicants for jobs as radio operators and teletypists must also have a knowl edge of standard codes and symbols used in com munications. To qualify for entry positions as FAA flight service station specialists, applicants must be at least 21 years old and have from 2l/£ to 3 years’ experience in some phase of air communi cations, traffic control, or flying. Permanent appointments are made on the basis of Federal civil service examinations. The airlines usually employ women as tele typists, and an increasing number are being hired as radio operators. Both airline radio operators and teletypists and FAA flight service station specialists serve probationary periods, during which time they receive on-the-job train ing. Skill gained in communications is helpful experience for transferring into such higher pay ing jobs as airline dispatcher or meteorologist. Employment Outlook Openings for entry positions as radio opera tors or teletypists will number about a hundred each year during the 1965-75 decade. These openings will occur as workers transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Overall employment of these workers may de cline somewhat because of the use of more auto matic communications equipment which allows communications for longer distances. The number of flight service station specialists employed by the FAA is expected to remain about the same in the years ahead. Need for additional workers to perform more services for pilots will be offset by improvements in equip ment and an increase in two-way radios that permit communications between pilots and air traffic controllers. The number of radio opera tors and teletypists employed by airlines probably will decrease due to communications systems becoming more automatic and centralized. Earnings and Working Conditions The beginning salary for airline radio opera tors who held the minimum third-class permit generally was between $385 and $445 a month U-r) 640 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK in late 1964. Workers who held a second-class license generally received $10 to $25 more a month. The beginning salary for teletypists ranged from $335 to $400 a month. Beginning FAA flight service station specialists receive be tween $415 and $460 a month, depending on education and experience; experienced communi cators earn from $600 to $785 a month. Radio operators and teletypists in a number of airlines are unionized. The major union in these occupational fields is the Communications Workers of America. See introductory section for sources of addi tional information and for general information on supplementary benefits and working condi tions. Traffic Agents and Clerks (2d ed. D.O.T. 1-44.12, .27, and .32) (3d ed. D.O.T. 912.368,919.368) Nature of Work Selling flight tickets, reserving seats and cargo space, and taking charge of the ground handling of planes are some of the duties of traffic agents and clerks. This group of workers includes ticket or reservation agents and clerks, operations or station agents, and traffic representatives. Reservation sales agents and clerks give custo mers flight schedule and fare information over the telephone. Reservation control agents record reservations as they are made and report the reservations by teletype machine to a central computer or to clerks in other cities so that the same space will not be sold twice. They also receive teletype messages informing them of the sale of space. On some of the larger airlines, data processing systems receive, record, and transmit flight space information to personnel at airports and reservations offices throughout the entire airline system at great speeds. Ticket agents sell tickets and fill out ticket forms in cluding such information as the flight number and the passenger’s* name and destination. They also check and weigh baggage, answer inquiries about flight schedules and fares, and keep records of tickets sold. Traffic representatives contact potential customers in order to promote greater use of the airlines services. Operations or station agents are responsible for the ground handling of airplanes at their stations. They supervise the loading and unload ing of the aircraft and sometimes do this work themselves. They see that the weight carried by the planes is distributed properly, compute gas loads and the weight carried by the plane, pre pare a list of the cargo, and keep records of the number of passengers carried. They may also Agents use electronic equipment to reservations. confirm customers make arrival and departure announcements and prepare the weather forms that pilots use when they plan their routes. Where Employed About 28,500 men and women were employed as traffic agents and clerks by the scheduled air lines in late 1964. A few thousand others were 641 CIVIL AVIATION also employed by the supplemental airlines, and by foreign-flag airlines that operate between the United States and overseas points. Traffic staffs are employed principally in down town offices and at airports in or near large cities where most airline passenger and cargo business originates. Some are employed in smaller com munities where airlines have scheduled stops. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Traffic agents and clerks must deal directly with the public, either in person or by telephone. For this reason, airlines have strict hiring standards with respect to appearance, personality, and edu cation. A good speaking voice is essential because these employees frequently use the telephone or public address systems. High school graduation generally is required, and college training is con sidered desirable. Experience with freight, pas senger, or express traffic in other branches of transportation is also desirable. College courses in transportation, such as “traffic management” and “air transportation,” as well as experience in other areas of air transpor tation, are helpful for a higher grade job, such as traffic representative. Both men and women are employed as reservation and ticket agents; however, most operations agents are men. Traffic agents may advance to positions as traffic representative and supervisor. A few may eventually move up to jobs as city and district traffic and station manager. Some are able to transfer to better paying jobs with travel agencies or to the traffic departments of big corporations. Employment Outlook There will be many thousands of opportuni ties for new workers to get jobs as traffic agents and clerks during the 1965-75 decade, mainly because of high turnover as young women leave their jobs to marry or rear children. Total em ployment in these jobs is expected to grow slightly. Only a slight increase in traffic personnel will be required to handle the large increase in pas senger and cargo traffic expected to occur in the next 10 to 15 years because of the increased use of electronic equipment to process information. Most of the major airlines are installing new machines to record and process reservations, keep records, and perform a variety of other routine tasks. The job of reservation clerk, in particu lar, will be affected by this mechanization. The employment of ticket agents, however, whose main job involves personal contacts, will not be affected very much, although their paper work will be reduced considerably. The small group of traffic representatives probably will increase substantially as the airlines compete for new business. Earnings and Working Conditions Wage data collected from union-management contracts covering reservations and ticket agents employed by several airlines indicate that their beginning salaries ranged from $355 to $380 a month in early 1965. Those workers with 5 to 8 years or more of experience earned between $430 and $475 a month. Station and operations agents started at about $380 a month and progressed to about $475 a month after several years. Many reservation and transportation agents belong to labor unions. Most of the organized agents belong to the Transport Workers Union of America or the Brotherhood of Kailway and Steamship Clerks, Freight Handlers, Express and Station Employes. See introductory section for sources of addi tional information and for general information on supplementary benefits and working condi tions. OCCUPATIONS IN THE ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY Nearly every American home, business, and community, however small, is vitally dependent upon electricity. This most versatile of all forms of energy is so basic to our lives that we take it for granted. Without electricity, there would be no modern communication systems, no highly mechanized industries, and fewer of the appliances that have become an indispensable part of every day life. Many types of workers are needed to produce electricity, develop additional markets for it, and distribute it to the consumer. These workers include power plant operators, linemen, electricians, engineers, research scientists, sales men, technicians, meter readers, and office workers. Electric utilities offer interesting jobs and steady employment for men and women in several thou sand communities throughout the country. Nature and Location of the Industry The electric power industry includes about 3,600 electric utility systems, which vary greatly in size and type of ownership. Utilities range from large interconnected systems serving broad regional areas, to small power companies serving individ ual communities. Many utilities are investor owned (private), or owned by cooperatives; others are owned by cities, States, counties, and public utility districts, as well as by the Federal Government. Utility systems include power plants, which make (generate) electric power; substations, which increase or decrease the voltage of this power; and vast networks of transmission and distribution lines. The delivery of electricity to the user at the instant he needs it is the distinctive feature of the operation of electric power systems. Elec tricity cannot be efficiently stored but must be used at the same moment it is produced. Because a customer can begin or increase his use of electric power at any time, by merely flicking a switch, a utility system must have sufficient capacity to 642 meet peak consumer needs at any time during the day or night. Some utilities generate, transmit, and distribute only electricity; others distribute both electricity and gas. This chapter is concerned with employ ment opportunities only in those jobs relating to the production and distribution of electric power in both types of companies. In early 1965, private, cooperative, and govern ment utility systems combined employed over 430,000 workers. Privately owned utilities and cooperatives employed about 370,000 workers in connection with electric services. Federal, State, and municipal government utilities employed the remainder—over 60,000 workers. A few large manufacturing industries, which produce electric power for their own use, also employed some electric power workers. Three principal groups of consumers—indus trial, residential, and commercial—purchased more than 90 percent of all electricity sold in 1965. Industrial customers such as chemical, steel, aluminum, and automobile plants purchased al most half of all the electric power sold. Resi dential customers purchased nearly 30 percent, and commercial customers such as stores, hotels, and office buildings purchased almost 20 percent. Electric utility service now reaches almost every locality and, therefore, electric utility jobs are found throughout the country. Hydroelectric power projects have created some electric utility jobs even in relatively isolated areas. Most utility jobs, however, are in heavily populated urban areas, especially where there are many industrial users or where a large utility has its headquarters. Producing and distributing large quantities of electric energy involves many processes and activi ties. Chart 33 shows how electric energy is gen erated and how it travels from the generating station to the users. The first step in providing electric energy takes place in a generating station or plant, where huge generators convert mechani- 644 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK of power to the customers. Another 20 percent are in maintenance and repair work and in jobs such as guard, watchman, arid janitor. Approxi mately 30 percent are employed in administra tive and clerical jobs, 10 percent in customer serv icing jobs, and 10 percent in scientific, engineering, and other technical occupations. In addition to the powerplant, transmission, and customer service occupations (discussed in detail later in this chapter), the electric power industry employs large numbers of workers in maintenance, engineering, scientific, administra tive, sales, and clerical occupations. The latter occupations are discussed briefly below. Detailed discussions of these and other occupations in the electric power industry and in many other in dustries are given in the Handbook sections cover ing the individual occupations. Maintenance and Other Occupations. A consider able number of workers are engaged in main taining and repairing the equipment used by the electric utilities. The duties of these skilled craftsmen are similar to those of maintenance workers in other industries. Among the more important skilled workers are electricians, instru ment repairmen, maintenance mechanics, machin ists, pipefitters, and boilermakers. Other workers are employed as guards, watchmen, and janitors. Engineering and Scientific Occupations. Many interesting job opportunities are available for engineers and technical workers in electric utili ties. Engineers plan generating plant additions, interconnections of complex power systems, and installations of new transmission and distribution equipment. They supervise construction, develop improved operating methods, and test the effi ciency of the many types of electrical equipment. In planning modern power systems, engineers deal with problems such as the selection of plant sites, type of fuel, and type of plant. Engineers also help industrial and commercial customers make the best use of electric power for equipment and lighting. They stimulate greater use of electricity by demonstrating the advantages of electrical equipment and suggesting places where electricity can be more effectively used. Administrative and Clerical Occupations. Be cause of the enormous amount of recordkeeping Maintenance mechanics check armature windings of electric generator. necessary to run the business operations, electric utilities employ a greater proportion of admini strative and clerical personnel than many other industries. Nearly a third of the industry’s work force is employed in clerical and administrative jobs. Many of these workers are women. Large numbers of stenographers, typists, bookkeepers, office machine operators, file clerks, accounting and auditing clerks, and cashiers are employed. These workers keep records of the services rend ered by the company, make up bills for customers, and prepare a variety of statements and statistical reports. An increasing amount of this work in the larger offices is now being performed by elec tronic data-processing equipment. This generally results in more clerical work being done with the same or fewer employees. The use of this new equipment is also creating some new jobs such as programer and console operator. Administra tive employees include specialized workers such as accountants, personnel officers, purchasing agents, lawyers, and salesmen. Employment Outlook Several thousand job opportunities for new workers are expected to occur each year during 643 ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY CHART 33 HOW E L E C T R IC IT Y IS M A D E A N D B R O U G H T T O T H E U S E R S cal energy into electricity. Electricity is pro duced primarily in steam-powered generating plants which use coal, gas, or oil for fuel. A few new steam generating stations use nuclear energy as fuel. A considerable amount of electricity is also produced in hydroelectric generating stations which use water power to operate turbines. Some generators, primarily for use in standby service or to provide electricity for special purposes, are powered by internal combustion engines. After electricity is generated, it passes through a “switchyard” where the voltage is increased in order that the electricity may travel long distances without excessive loss of power. After leaving the generating plant, electricity passes onto trans mission lines. These lines carry electricity from the generating plant to substations where the volt age is decreased and passed on to the distribution networks serving individual customers. Trans mission lines tie together the generating stations of a single system and also the power facilities of several systems. In this way, power can be inter changed among several utility systems to meet varying demands. Electric Utility Occupations Workers are needed in many different occu pations to produce electric power and make it available at the instant the user requires it. About 10 percent of the employees in this industry work in occupations directly related to the gen eration of electricity. About 20 percent are in jobs related to the transmission and distribution 645 ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY the 1965-75 decade, primarily because of the need to replace workers who retire, die, or leave the industry for other work. However, many of these employment opportunities will be in new types of jobs because of the changing methods of production and distribution of electricity. Total employment in the electric power industry is expected to remain relatively stable although the production of electric power is expected to grow significantly. Industrial customers are expected to use more electricity because of the widening application of electric power to industrial processes. Use of electricity by residential customers is expected to rise because of the rapid growth in population and the number of households. In addition, resi dential customers are expected to increase their use of electricity for heating and air-condition ing, and for an increasing number and variety of appliances. The construction of new stores and office buildings and the modernization of existing structures will expand the use of electricity by commercial customers. However, the growing use of automatic con trols in this already highly mechanized industry makes possible large increases in the production of electric power with little or no increase in total employment. For example, since operators in generating stations are needed chiefly to check gages and control instruments, improvements in generating equipment have made possible great increases in the industry’s capacity and produc tion with only small increases in the number of operators. Continuing development of larger and more highly mechanized equipment with many automatic controls will result in a decline in the number of these operators. The employ ment of substation operators will continue to decline because of the installation of completely automatic equipment in all but the largest sub stations. Employment decreases in these occupa tions may be offset by the expected growth in the number of maintenance and repair craftsmen needed to keep the industry’s increasing amount of complex machinery in working condition. The employment of workers in maintenance and repair of transmission and distribution lines is expected to remain relatively stable. Fewer men per crew will be needed to work on electric power lines because of the increasing use of mechanized equipment for setting poles and for stringing and maintaining lines. However, this reduction in jobs per crew may be offset by the larger number of crews needed to service the expanding distribution systems required by the growing number of electric power customers. Because of the increasing use of electronic dataprocessing equipment for billing and recordkeep ing, only a small increase in office employment is expected. However, the relatively high turnover in office jobs will provide many additional open ings for new workers each year. Some increase in employment is also expected in administrative jobs; scientific, engineering, and other technical jobs; and in such areas as sales and market de velopment. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings in the electric utility industry are generally higher than in other public utility in dustries and in many manufacturing industries. In early 1965, earnings of nonsupervisory em ployees of electric power utilities averaged $3.16 an hour or $130.19 a week. Many nonsupervisory electric utility workers in production, transmission, and distribution de partments are union members, The bargaining representative for most of these workers is either the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers or the Utility Workers Union of America. Some utility workers are represented by independent unions. Because supplying electricity is a 24-hour, 7day-a-week activity, some employees must work schedules which include evenings, nights, and weekends. Most union contracts with electric utilities provide a higher rate of pay for even ing and night work than the basic day rate. In 1965, workers on the second shift received from 7 to 17 cents an hour more than the basic day rate, and those on the third shift, from 9 to 24 cents an hour more. Overtime work is often required, especially during emergencies such as floods, hurricanes, or storms. During an “emergency callout,” which is a short-notice request to report to work during nonscheduled hours, the worker is generally guaranteed a minimum of 3 or 4 hours’ pay at 11/2 times his basic hourly rate, and travel time to and from the job is counted as worktime. 646 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK In addition to these provisions which affect the workers’ pay, other benefits are provided by electric utilities. Annual vacations are granted to workers according to length of service. Usually, contracts or employee benefit programs provide for a 1-week vacation for 6 months to 1 year of service, 2 weeks for 1 to 10 years, 3 weeks for 10 to 20 years, and a number of contracts and pro grams provide for 4 weeks for 20 years or more. The number of paid holidays ranges from 5 to 12 days a year, depending on locality. Nearly all companies have benefit plans for their employees. A typical program provides life, hospitalization, and surgical insurance and paid sick leave. Re tirement pension plans supplement Federal social security payments, and are generally paid for in full on in part by the employer. The number of injuries per million man-hours worked is much lower in this industry than in most manufacturing industries. Workers in some occupations in this industry are more subject to accidents than others. Accidents occur most fre quently among the line and cable splicing crews. Because of the dangers of electrocution and other hazards, electric utilities and unions have made intensive efforts to enforce safe working practices. Utility companies have set up safety rules for employees to follow. Strict adherence to these safety standards is required. As a result, the industry’s accident rate has been declining in recent years. Where To G o for More Information More information about jobs in the electric power industry may be obtained from local elec tric utility companies, industry trade associations, or from the local offices of unions which have elec tric utility workers among their membership. Ad ditional information may be obtained from : International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 1200 15th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. Utility Workers Union of America, 1725 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Powerplant Occupations Nature of Work Operators are key workers in a powerplant. They watch, check, control, and keep records of the operation of various kinds of equipment. They must see that the equipment functions effi ciently and instantly detect any trouble that arises. There are four basic classes of operators —boiler, turbine, auxiliary equipment, and switch board operators. In many new steam plants, the duties of these operators are combined, and opera tors and their assistants are known as steam op erators, powerplant operators, or central control room operators. Of increasing importance in this highly mechanized industry are the maintenance men and repairmen, including electrical, instru ment, and mechanical repairmen. Other powerplant workers include helpers and cleaners, and custodial staff, including janitors and watch men. Coal handlers are employed in steam gen erating plants that use coal for fuel. Hydroelec tric plants employ gate tenders who open and close the headgates that control the flow of water to the turbines. Supervision of powerplant op erations is handled by a chief engineer and by his assistants, the watch engineers. Boiler operators (D.O.T. 950.782) regulate the fuel, air, and water supply in the boilers and maintain proper steam pressure needed to turn the turbines, on the basis of information shown by gages, meters, and other instruments mounted on panel boards. One man may operate one or more boilers. Boiler operators, of course, are employed only where steam, produced in boilers, is used to generate electricity. None are needed in hydroelectric plants, since these plants use waterpower to generate electricity. Turbine operators (D.O.T. 952.138) control the operation of steam- or water-powered turbines which drive the generators. (In small plants, they may also operate auxiliary equipment or a switchboard.) Modern steam turbines and gen erators operate at extremely high speeds, pres sures, and temperatures; therefore, close attention must be given the pressure gages, thermometers, and other instruments which show the operations of the turbogenerator unit. Turbine operators ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY Control room operators regulate functioning of a modern power plant. record the information shown by these instru ments, and check the oil pressure at bearings, the speed of the turbines, and the circulation and amount of cooling water in the condensers which change the steam back into water. They are also responsible for starting and shutting down the turbines and generators, as directed by the switch board operator in the control room. Other work ers, such as helpers and junior operators, assist the turbine operators. 647 Auxiliary equipment operators (D.O.T. 952.782) check and record the reading of instruments that indicate the operating condition of pumps, fans, blowers, condensers, evaporators, water con ditioners, compressors, and coal pulverizers. Since auxiliary equipment may go out of order occasionally, the operators must be able to detect trouble quickly, make accurate judgments, and sometimes make repairs. Some small plants do not employ auxiliary equipment operators; these duties are performed by turbine operators. Switchboard, operators (D.O.T. 952.782) con trol the flow of electric power in the generating station from generators to outgoing powerlines. They usually work in a control room which is equipped with switchboards and instrument pan els. Switches control the movement of electricity through the generating station circuits and onto the transmission lines. Instruments mounted on panelboards show the power demands on the station at any instant, the powerload on each line leaving the station, the amount of current being produced by each gen erator, and the voltage. The operators use switches to distribute the power demands among the generators in the station, to combine the current from two or more generators, and to regulate the flow of the electricity onto various powerlines to meet the demands of the users served by each line. When power requirements on the station change, they order generators started or stopped and, at the proper time, con nect them to the power circuits in the station or disconnect them. In doing this work, they fol low telephone orders from the load dispatcher who directs the flow of current throughout the system. Switchboard operators and their assistants also check their instruments frequently to see that electricity is moving through and out of the pow’erplant properly and that correct voltage is being maintained. Among their other duties, they keep records of all switching operations and of load conditions on generators, lines, and trans formers. They obtain this information by mak ing regular meter readings. In most powerplants constructed within the last 5 or 6 years, the operation of boilers, turbines, auxiliary equipment, and the switching required for efficient balancing of generator output, has 648 been centralized in a single control room. Here, central control room operators, or power plant operators, by monitoring instrument panels and manipulating switches, regulate all the power generating equipment, which in older plants re quires specialists such as boiler and turbine opera tors. Control room operators have several as sistants whose duties include patrolling the plant and checking the equipment. The central control room operators report to the plant superintendent or watch engineers when equipment is not operat ing properly. Watch engineers (D.O.T. 950.131) are the principal supervisory workers in a powerplant They supervise the employees responsible for the operation and maintenance of boilers, turbines, generators, auxiliary equipment, switchboards, transformers, and other machinery and equip ment. Watch engineers are supervised by a chiefengineer or a plant superintendent who is in charge of the entire plant. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement New powerplant workers generally begin at the bottom of the ladder—usually on cleanup jobs. Such work gives beginners an opportunity to become familiar with the equipment and the operations of a powerplant. They advance to the more responsible job of helper, as job open ings occur. Formal apprenticeships in these jobs are rare. Applicants are generally required to have a high school education or its equivalent. Advancement on the job depends primarily on ability to master the skills required. It takes from 1 to 3 years to become an auxiliary equipment operator and from 4 to 8 years to be come a boiler operator, turbine operator, or switch board operator. A person learning to be an aux iliary equipment operator progresses from helper to junior operator to operator. A boiler operator generally spends from 2 to 6 months as a laborer before being promoted to the job of helper. De pending on openings and the worker’s aptitude, the helper may advance to junior boiler operator and eventually to boiler operator, or transfer to the maintenance department and work his way up to boiler repairman. In most large cities, boiler operators, who operate high-pressure boilers, are required to be licensed. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Turbine operators are selected from among auxiliary equipment operators in many plants. The line of advancement in other plants is from laborer to turbine helper. The helper then may advance either to junior turbine operator and eventually to turbine operator, or he may transfer to turbine repairman, depending on job openings and his aptitude. Turbine operators in most large cities are required to be licensed. Where a system has a number of generating plants of different size, operators first get experi ence in the smaller stations and then are pro moted to jobs in the larger stations as vacancies occur. New workers in the switchboard opera tions section begin as helpers, advance to junior operators, and then to switchboard operators. They also may advance from jobs in small sta tions to those in larger stations where operating conditions are much more complex. Some utility companies promote substation operators to switch board operating jobs. The duties of both classes of operators have much in common. Switchboard operators can advance to work in the load dis patcher’s office. Watch engineers are selected from among experienced powerplant operators. At least 5 to 10 years of experience as a first-class operator are usually required to qualify for a watch engineer’s job. Employment Outlook Several hundred job openings for new workers will occur each year during the 1965-75 decade, because of the need to replace operators who re tire, die, or leave the industry for other work. However, the total number of jobs for powerplant operators is not expected to increase, and may even decrease somewhat, although the ca pacity and production of electric utility systems is expected to double during the decade ahead. The use of increasingly larger and more efficient equipment is expected to make possible great in creases in capacity and production with little or no increase in the number of powerplant opera tors. For example, one operator can control a large modern turbogenerator as readily as he can con trol a much smaller one. Also, the growing use of more automatic equipment reduces the num ber of operators needed, and makes it possible to 649 ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY direct all operating processes from a central con trol room. Powerplant workers employed in atomicpowered electric plants must have special training to work with fissionable, radioactive fuel, in ad dition to the knowledge and skills required for operation of conventional steam generated electric power. Generally, about the same number of employees is required to run an atomic-powered plant as is required to operate steam-generating plants using more common fuels. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of powerplant workers depend on the type of job they have, the part of the country in which they work, and many other factors. The following tabulation shows esti mated average hourly earnings for selected powerplant occupations in privately operated utilities with 100 or more employees in mid-1964: Average hourly earnings Auxiliary equipment operator_____________ Boiler operator__________________________ Control room operator___________________ Switchboard operator: Switchboard operator, Class A _______ Switchboard operator, Class B _______ Turbine operator________________________ Watch engineer__________________________ $2. 95 3. 29 3. 81 3. 3. 3. 4. 45 12 44 20 A powerplant is typically well lighted and ventilated, clean, and orderly, but there is some noise from the whirring turbines. Switchboard operators in the control room often sit at the panel boards, but boiler and turbine operators are almost constantly on their feet. The work of powerplant operators is gen erally not physically strenuous, particularly in the newer powerplants. Since generating stations operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, powerplant employees sometimes must work nights and weekends. Transmission and Distribution Occupations Nature of Work A fifth of the workers employed by electric light and power systems are in transmission and distribution jobs. These workers are primarily employed in maintaining the flow of electric power to the users. The principal workers in transmission and distribution jobs are those who control the flow of electricity—load dispatchers and substation operators—and the men who con struct and maintain powerlines—linemen, cable splicers, troublemen, groundmen, and helpers. Linemen make up the largest single occupation in the industry. Load dispatchers (D.O.T. 950.168) (some times called system operators or power dis patchers) are the key operating workers of the transmission and distribution departments. They control the flow of electricity throughout the area served by the utility. The load dispatcher’s room is the nerve center of the entire utility system. From this location, the dispatcher con trols the plant equipment used to generate elec tricity and directs its flow throughout the system. He telephones his instructions to the switchboard operators at the generating plants and the substations. He tells the operators when Load dispatchers control flow of electricity through distribution lines. 650 additional boilers and generators are to be started up or shut down in line with the total power needs of the system. The load dispatcher must anticipate demands for electric power so the system will be prepared to meet them. Power demands on utility systems may change from hour to hour. A sudden after noon rainstorm can cause a million lights to be switched on in a matter of minutes, but boilers often must be heated for 2 hours before they are ready to produce sufficient steam for generating. Therefore, the load dispatcher must keep in touch with weather reports from hour to hour. He must also be able to direct the handling of any emergency situation, such as a trans former or transmission line failure, and to route current around the affected area. Load dis patchers may also be in charge of the intercon nections with other systems, and they direct the transfer of current between systems as the need arises. The load dispatcher’s source of information for the entire transmission system centers in the pilot board. This pilot board, which dominates the load dispatcher’s room, is a complete map of the utility’s transmission system. It enables the dis patcher to determine, at a glance, the conditions that exist at any point in the system. Red and green lights may show the positions of switches which control generating equipment and trans mission circuits as well as high voltage connec tions with substations and large industrial cus tomers. The board may also have several recording instruments which make a graphic record of operations for future analysis ’and study. Substation operators (D.O.T. 952.782) are generally in charge of a substation and are responsible for its operation. Under orders from the load dispatcher, they direct the flow of cur rent out of the station by means of a switchboard. Ammeters, voltmeters, and other types of instru ments on the switchboard register the amount of electric power flowing through each line. The flow of electricity from the incoming to the out going lines is controlled by circuit breakers. The substation operators connect or break the flow of current by manipulating levers on the switchboard which control the circuit breakers. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK In some substations, where alternating current is changed to direct current to meet the needs of special users, the operator controls converters which perform the change. In addition to switching duties, the substation operators check the operating condition of all equipment to make sure that it is in good work ing order. They supervise the activities of the other substation employees on the same shift, assign them tasks, and direct their work. In smaller substations, the substation operator may be the only employee. Linemen (D.O.T. 821.381) construct and maintain the network of powerlines which carry electricity from generating plants to consumers. Their work consists of installations, equipment replacements, repairs, and routine maintenance work. Although in many companies the installa tion of new lines and equipment is important, in other companies this work is performed by outside contractors. When wires, cables, or poles break, it means an emergency call for a line crew. Linemen splice or replace broken wires and cables and replace broken insulators or other damaged equipment. In some power companies, linemen specialize in particular types of work. Those in one crew may work only on new construction and others may do only repair work. In some instances, linemen specialize on high voltage lines using special “hot line” tools to avoid interruptions in the flow of current. Troublemen (D.O.T. 829.281) are experienced linemen who are assigned to special crews that handle emergency calls for service. They move from one special job to another, as ordered by a central service office which receives reports of line trouble. Often troublemen receive their or ders by direct radio communication with the central service office. These workers must have a thorough knowl edge of the company’s transmission and distri bution network. They first locate and report the source of trouble and then attempt to restore service by making the necessary repairs. Depend ing on the nature and extent of the trouble, a troubleman may restore service in the case of minor failure, or he may simply disconnect and ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY 651 splicers pull the cable through the conduit in which the cable is carried and then join the cables at connecting points in the transmission and distribution systems. At each connection in the cable, they wrap insulation around the wiring. They splice the conductors leading away from each junction of the main cable, insulate the splices, and connect the insulated splices to the cable sheathing by means of a lead joint. Most of the physical work in placing new cables or replacing old cables is done by helpers. Cable splicers spend most of their time in repairing and maintaining the cables and chang ing the layout of the cable systems. They must know the arrangement of the wiring systems, where the circuits are connected, and where they lead to and come from. They must make sure that the conductors do not become mixed up between the substation and the customer’s premises. The splicers connect the ends of the conductors to numbered terminals, making cer tain that they have the same identifying number at the remote panel box in an underground vault as they have in the control office. Cable splicers must also make sure that the insulation on the cables is in good condition. Line crew cleans insulators on power transmission tower. Training/ Other Qualifications/ and Advancement remove damaged equipment. He must be familiar with all the circuits and switching points so that he can safely disconnect live circuits in case of line breakdowns. Groundmen (D.O.T. 821.887) dig poleholes and assist the linemen and apprentices to erect the wooden poles which carry the distribution lines. The linemen bolt crossarms to the poles or towers, and bolt or clamp insulators in place on the crossarms. With the assistance of the groundmen, they raise the wires and cables and install them on the poles or towers by attaching them to the insulators. In addition, with assist ance from groundmen, linemen attach a wide variety of equipment to the poles and towers, such as lightning arrestors, transformers, and switches. Cable splicers (D.O.T. 829.381) install and repair underground lines, performing about the same service as the linemen do on the overhead lines. When cables are installed, the cable Load dispatches are selected from among the experienced switchboard operators and opera tors of the larger substations. Usually, 7 to 10 years of experience as a senior switchboard or substation operator is required for promotion to load dispatcher. To qualify for this job, an appli cant must demonstrate his knowledge of the entire utility system. Substation operators generally begin as assist ant or junior operators. It usually takes 3 to 7 years of on-the-job training to advance to the job of operator in a large substation. Skilled linemen (journeymen) usually qualify for such jobs after about 4 years of on-the-job training. In some companies, this training con sists of a formal apprenticeship program. Under formal apprenticeship, there is a written agree ment, usually worked out with a labor union, which covers the content of the training and the length of time the apprentice works in each stage 652 of the training. The apprenticeship program combines on-the-job training with classroom instruction. Such instruction includes courses in blueprint reading, elementary electrical theory, electrical codes, and methods of transmitting electrical currents. The apprentice usually begins his training by helping the groundman to set poles in place and by passing tools and equipment up to the lineman. After a training period of approxi mately 6 months, the apprentice begins to do sim ple linework on lines with low voltage. While on this work, he is under the immediate supervision of a journeyman lineman or the line foreman. After about a year, he is assigned more difficult work, but is still under close supervision. Dur ing the last 6 months of his apprenticeship, the trainee does about the same kind of work as the journeyman lineman, but with more supervision. When he begins to work independently, he is first assigned simple, routine tasks. After he acquires several years of experience and demonstrates a thorough knowledge of the company’s trans mission and distribution systems, he may advance from lineman to troubleman. The training of linemen who learn their skills on the job is generally similar to the apprentice ship program; it usually takes about the same length of time, but does not involve classroom instruction. The worker begins as a groundman and progresses through increasingly difficult stages of linework before becoming a skilled lineman. Candidates for linework should be strong and in good physical condition, since climbing poles and lifting lines and equipment is strenuous work. They must also have steady nerves and good balance to work at the tops of the poles and to avoid the hazards of live wires and falls. Most cable splicers get their training on the job, usually taking about 4 years to become fully qualified. Workers begin as helpers and are then promoted to assistant or junior splicers. In these jobs, they are gradually assigned more difficult tasks as their knowledge of the work increases. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK occupations during the 1965-75 decade. Most of these opportunities will occur because of the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. A slow increase in the employment of trans mission and distribution workers is expected, although employment trends will differ among the various occupations in this category. In spite of the need to construct and maintain a rapidly growing number of transmission and distribu tion lines, the number of linemen and troublemen is expected to increase only slightly because of the use of more mechanized equipment. Some in crease in the number of cable splicers is expected because of the growing use of underground lines in suburban areas. The need for substation op erators will be substantially reduced since the introduction of improved and more automatic equipment makes it possible to operate most sub stations by remote control. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of transmission and distribution workers depend on the type of job they have and the part of the country in which they work. The following tabulation shows the average hourly earnings for major transmission and distribution Employment Outlook Several thousand job opportunities are expected to be available in transmission and distribution Linemen work on lines from "bucket truck." 653 ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY occupations in privately operated utilities with 100 or more employees in mid-1964: Load dispatchers and substation operators generally work indoors in pleasant surroundings. Average hourly Linemen, troublemen, and groundmen work out earnings Groundman________________________ j.____ $2. 42 doors and, in emergencies, in all kinds of weather. Lineman_________________________ 3.53 Cable splicers do most of their work in manholes Load dispatcher______________________________ 4.24 Substation operator__________________________ 3.44 beneath city streets—often in cramped quarters. Troubleman_________________________________ 3.54 Safety standards developed over the years by utility companies, with the cooperation of labor No recent earnings data are available for cable unions, have greatly reduced the accident hazards splicers; however, their earnings are about the of these jobs. same as those for linemen. Customer Service Occupations Nature of Work Workers in customer service jobs include those who install, test, and repair meters and those who read the meters. Also in this group are company agents in rural areas and appliance servicemen working in company-operated shops which repair electrical equipment owned by customers. Metermen (D.O.T. 710.281) (or meter repair men) are the most skilled workers in this group. They install, test, maintain, and repair meters on customers’ premises, particularly those of Urge industrial and commercial establishments. Some metermen can handle all types of meters, including the more complicated ones used in industrial plants and other places where large quantities of electric power are used. Others specialize in repairing the simpler kinds, like those in homes. Often, some of the large systems have meter specialists, such as meter installers (D.O.T. 821.381) and meter testers (D.O.T. 710.281). Meter installers put in and take out meters. Meter testers specialize in testing the small meters on homeowners’ property and some of the more complicated ones used by commercial and in dustrial customers. Meter readers (D.O.T. 239.588) go to customers’ premises—homes, stores, and factories—to read the figures on the meters which register the amount of electric current used. They record the amount of current used in a specific period so that each customer can be charged for the amount he used. Meter readers also watch for, and report, any tampering with meters. District representatives usually serve as com pany agents in outlying districts, in localities where the utility company does not have an office and where the small number of customers does not justify the use of more specialized workers. Their work includes reading meters, collecting overdue bills, connecting and disconnecting meters, and making minor repairs on them. They receive complaints about service and reports of line trouble and send them to a central office for handling. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Metermen begin their jobs as helpers in the meter testing and meter repair departments. Young men entering this field should have a basic knowledge of electricity. About 4 years of on-the-job training is required to become a fully qualified meterman. Some companies have formal apprenticeship programs for this occupa tion in which the trainee progresses according to a specific plan. Utility companies usually employ inexperienced men to work as meter readers. They generally accompany the experienced meter reader on his rounds until they have learned the job well enough to go on the rounds alone. This job can be learned in a few days. The duties of district representatives are learned on the job. An important qualification for men in these jobs is the ability to deal tact fully with the public in handling service com plaints and collecting overdue bills. Employment Outlook A slight increase in employment is expected in customer service occupations during the 1965-75 decade. Because many new customers—homes, offices, factories, hotels, and stores—will be served 654 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK by utility systems, a larger number of meters will be needed. However, this will require only a slight increase in the number of meter readers because of the trend toward reading meters less frequently. Furthermore since new meters are better constructed and require less maintenance, there will be only a slight growth in the number of metermen needed. The need to replace metermen and meter readers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work will provide a small num ber of job openings for new workers each year. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of customer service workers vary according to the type of job they have and the part of the country in which they work. The following tabulation shows the average hourly earnings for major customer service jobs in pri vately operated utilities with 100 or more employees in mid-1964: Average hourly earnings District representative___________________ Meterman A_____________________________ Meterman B___________ Appliance serviceman____________________ Meter reader____________________________ Meterman tests house meter. $3. 3. 3. 3. 2. 45 56 06 07 68 The job of the meter reader is not physically hard, but involves considerable walking and some stair climbing. Metermen and appliance service men work indoors under typical repair shop con ditions except when repairing or installing meters or appliances on customers’ premises. ELECTRONICS MANUFACTURING The science of electronics has contributed greatly to the spectacular achievements of the scientific age in which we live. Electronic in struments guide unmanned missiles for our Na tion’s defense and control the flights of our astronauts as they rocket into outer space. Other electronic instruments make it possible for man to see, hear, and communicate over vast dis tances. Electronic devices direct, control, and test production processes in industries such as steel, petroleum, and chemicals. Electronic data processing equipment enables business and Gov ernment to handle tons of paperwork with great accuracy and speed. Hospitals use electronic in struments to perform laboratory tests and to check body functions. Television and radio sets inform and entertain, while other electronic de vices help protect homes against fire and other hazards. Indications are that electronics will play an even greater role in the future. In 1964, an estimated 820,000 workers were engaged in manufacturing electronic products. In the 1965-75 decade, a rapid increase in employ ment is anticipated. Job opportunities are ex pected to be particularly favorable in plants producing industrial-commercial electronic equip ment, output of which is expected to grow much more rapidly than other electronic products. Nature and Location of Electronics Manufacturing Before World War II, the principal electronic products were radios, broadcasting equipment, other receiving and transmitting equipment, and electron tubes. With the rapid development of new electronic products during and after that war, the broader term “electronics manufactur ing” or “electronics industry” came into general use. The heart of every electronic product is an electronic circuit or system that includes electron tubes, semiconductors, and other electronic de vices which discharge, control, or direct the flow of small, active particles of negative electricity (electrons) through the circuit. Because of their unique functions, electronic devices are finding many applications. Electronic products may be grouped into four major categories: (1) Military and space equip ment, (2) industrial and commercial products, (3) consumer products, and (4) components. In 1964, military and space products accounted for 57 percent of the estimated $16.1 billion in total electronic shipments. Industrial and commercial equipment accounted for 21 percent of ship ments; consumer products, 18 percent; and com ponents produced as replacement parts, 4 per cent. (Components produced as original equip ment for end products are included in the ship ments value of the end products.) Military and space products include electronic guidance and telemetering systems for missiles and spacecraft; radar and other detection de vices; automatic communications and computing systems; gyroscopes and other navigational equipment; and fire controls (such as air-to-air target seeking and detonating equipment). Some important commercial and industrial products are computers; commercial radio and television broadcasting equipment; commercial and private aircraft communications and navigational ap paratus; and industrial testing, measuring, and production control equipment. Principal con sumer products include television sets, radios, phonographs, tape recorders, and hearing aids. Electronic components fall into three broad clas sifications : Tubes, semiconductors, and “other components.” Tubes include receiving tubes, power tubes, television picture tubes, and special purpose tubes. Principal semiconductor devices are transistors, diodes, rectifiers, and microelec tronic devices, which include combinations of miniaturized semiconductors. “Other compo nents” include such items as capacitors, resistors, transformers, relays, connectors, and electronic switches. 655 T 78-316 0 —65------- 13 656 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK in such activities as research, development, and the negotiation and administration of contracts. How Electronic Products A re M ade Under simulated airborne conditions, technicians practice operation and maintenance of T V equipment. Of the estimated 820,000 workers employed in electronics manufacturing establishments in 1964, about three-fifths—515,000—were in plants pro ducing end products. About 250,000 of these workers produced military and space equipment; 165.000, industrial and commercial products; and 100.000, consumer items. The remaining 305,000 workers were in plants making electronic com ponents. Electronics manufacturing plants are located in nearly every State, but about three-fourths of electronics manufacturing workers in 1964 were in seven States: California, New York, Illinois, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and Indiana. Metropolitan areas with large numbers of electronics manufacturing workers included Chicago, Los Angeles, New York, Philadelphia, Newark, Boston, Baltimore, and Indianapolis. In addition to the employees in electronics manufacturing plants, about 75,000 electronics workers were employed in the Federal Govern ment, universities, and nonprofit research centers, Many plants manufacturing electronic prod ucts specialize in one type of end product, such as television sets, radios, and electronic com puters; or one type of component, such as tele vision picture tubes, power tubes, and semi conductors. In plants which produce several types of end products or components, each type is generally made in a separate department. Subassemblies, such as tuners and record changers, are often made in plants specializing in these products. Research and development activi ties are performed in establishments specializing in such work, or in separate departments of manufacturing plants. A large proportion of workers in plants manu facturing end products are engaged in assembly operations. Inspecting and testing of subassem blies and end products are also important activi ties. Some end-product plants have fabricating and processing departments in which workers do machining, sheet-metal work, and cleaning and coating of metals, such as painting and plating; and plastic molding. In assembling radios, television sets, and other end products produced in large quantities, major subassemblies, such as circuit boards or panels, transformers, turners, tubes, and speakers are attached mainly by hand onto a chassis. A mov ing conveyor is often used to transport the chassis from one work station to another. Assembled units are placed into metal, plastic, or wooden cabinets. Where complex electronic products are made in small lots, as in the case of scientific and research devices and of electronic equipment used in space exploration, one or two workers may as semble a complete unit by hand. Semiautomatic and automatic machinery are being used more and more to perform processing and assembly operations in end-equipment plants, particularly where products are mass-produced. For example, in the manufacture of circuit boards, many plants use automatic punch presses to make holes in thin sheets of plastic (one or both sides of which is coated with a thin layer of copper) so that components can be attached. 657 ELECTRONICS MANUFACTURING Machines are used to etch electrical circuits, which replace wires, on the circuit boards. Machines also position components into the proper holes in the circuit boards. Mechanical devices bend the wires or metal “ears” on the bot tom of the components, locking them into place on the board. Wire leads on the components are soldered to the etched circuits in one continuous operation (called “dip” or “wave” soldering). Parts used in end products are usually brought to the assembly line by hand truck since most electronic parts are not bulky. They may be loose in boxes, fed from hoppers (receptacles for parts), or held in special containers or jigs. During assembly operations, components and subassemblies are inspected and tested to locate faulty parts or connections or other defects. In components manufacturing plants, most assembly work is done by machine. Some types of components are usually assembled by hand, such as experimental parts, special purpose tubes, and extremely tiny semiconductors used in mili tary and space equipment. Electronic components are inspected and tested many times, beginning with visual inspection of raw materials as they enter the plant and continuing through all stages of manufacture. Electronics Manufacturing Occupations A wide variety of occupations, requiring a broad range of training and skills, is found in plants manufacturing electronic products. In early 1965, about half the workers in electronics manufacturing were in plant jobs (production, maintenance, transportation, and service); the rest were in white-collar jobs (engineering, scientific, finance, administrative, clerical, and sales). The proportions of plant and white-collar workers differed from one establishment to an other, depending mainly on the products being manufactured. For example, the proportion of plant workers was generally higher in establish ments producing consumer products than in estab lishments manufacturing military and space pro ducts. The data in the following tabulation, ob tained from selected electronics manufacturing plants in early 1965, illustrate the differences in occupational patterns in these plants by major type of product manufactured. Selected electronics establish ments m anufacturing— Industrialcom Conmercial sum er prodprod- Compoucts ucts nents M ilitaryspace products Occupational group or occupation A ll o c c u p a tio n s ______________________ W h ite -c o lla r w o r k e r s ______________________ (percent of workers ) 1 0 0 .0 67 .8 E n g in e e r s a n d o th e r te c h n ic a l w o r k e r s ... E n g in e e r s a n d s c ie n t is t s ________________ T e c h n ic ia n s ( in c lu d in g d r a fts m e n )____ A d m in is t r a t iv e a n d e x e c u tiv e w o r k e r s ... C ler ica l a n d s te n o g r a p h ic _________ ______ 3 5 .0 21.4 13 .6 17.4 15.3 1 0 0 .0 4 3 .0 12.4 5 .8 6 .4 17.1 13.5 P la n t w o r k e r s_______________ S k ille d _____________________________________ A s s e m b le r s _________ ______ . . . A n a ly z e r s a n d tr o u b le s h o o te r s_______ P r o c e ssin g w o r k e r s _____ ________________ 3 2 .2 10 .5 2 .3 2 .9 .4 2 .2 .5 5 7 .0 12.3 1 .5 3 .7 .1 3 .8 1.1 6 0 .4 10.7 3 .4 4 .1 .2 .8 .3 61 .4 9 .0 2 .3 1 .0 1 .5 .3 .7 2 .2 21 .7 11. 2 1 .4 2 .6 1 .3 .4 2 .2 4 4 .5 21 .6 7 .0 6 .1 3 .5 2 .9 1 .9 4 9 .8 3 3 .8 7 .6 .7 .2 1 .8 3 .1 5 2 .3 3 6 .8 6 .3 3 .2 .4 .7 1 .4 2 .1 1 .4 1 .3 .9 1 .2 2 .0 1 .3 2 .4 2 .7 M a c h in is ts a n d r e p a ir m e n _____________ T o o l a n d d ie m a k e r s _________________ O th er s k ille d w o rk ers (in c lu d in g sh e e tm e t a l w o r k e r s, w e ld e r s, ca r p e n te r s, e le c tr ic ia n s , a n d p lu m b e r s a n d p ip e fitte r s )__________________ . . . S e m is k ille d a n d u n s k ille d ___ . . . .. In s p e c to r s a n d te s te r s ________ _________ F a b r ic a tin g w o r k e r s _________________ _ P r o c e ssin g w o r k e r s __________________ . S h ip p in g a n d r e c e iv in g w o r k e r s......... .. M a te r ia ls h a n d le r s (in c lu d in g tr u c k d r iv e r s )_____________________________ C u s to d ia l a n d ja n ito r ia l w o r k e r s .. O th e r ____ _____________________ _________ N ote: 1 0 0 .0 3 9 .6 12.4 7 .4 5 .0 16.1 11.1 1 0 0 .0 3 8 .6 17.6 1 0 .2 7 .4 6 .5 14.5 2 .0 .2 B e c a u s e o f r o u n d in g , s u m s o f in d iv id u a l ite m s m a y n o t e q u a l to ta ls . More than two-fifths of the workers employed in electronics manufacturing plants were women. In some plants, particularly those producing electron tubes and semiconductors, women ac- Two foremen check electronic assembly. 658 counted for half or more of total employment. Most women are employed as semiskilled plant workers, chiefly as assemblers, inspectors, and testers, and also as office workers. However, op portunities for women exist in nearly all types of jobs in electronics. Professional and Technical Occupations. A large proportion of electronics manufacturing workers are in engineering, scientific, and other technical jobs. Engineers and scientists alone represent about 1 out of 7 electronics workers. Generally, they account for a much larger proportion of em ployment in plants making military and space equipment than in those producing other types of electronic products. The largest group of engineers are electrical or electronics engineers. They are generally em ployed in research and development, although many work in production operations as design engineers or as test methods and quality control engineers. Electronics engineers also work as field engineers, sales engineers, or engineering liaison men. Substantial numbers of mechanical engineers and industrial engineers are also employed in electronics manufacturing plants. Mechanical engineers work as design engineers in product development and in tool and equipment design. They work also as plant engineers—chiefly con cerned with the maintenance, layout, and opera tion of plant equipment. Most industrial engi neers work as production engineers or as effi ciency, methods, or time-study engineers. Other engineers employed in electronics manufactur ing include chemical, metallurgical, and ceramic engineers. Physicists make up the largest group of scien tists in electronics manufacturing. Most of them do research and development work in connection with such products as microwave tubes and micro miniaturized components and circuits. Micro miniaturization refers to the development of extremely tiny, light-weight electronic devices which consume very small amounts of power. Many scientists in electronics manufacturing are chemists and metallurgists, employed mainly in research work and in materials testing. Mathe maticians and statisticians work with engineers and scientists on complex mathematical and OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK statistical problems, especially in the design of military and space equipment and computers. Statisticians are also employed in the fields of quality control, production scheduling, and sales planning. Industrial designers work on the de sign of electronic products and the equipment used to manufacture them. Technicians—such as electronics technicians, draftsmen, engineering aids, laboratory tech nicians, and mathematical assistants—represented a large group of electronics manufacturing work ers, roughly 1 out of 11. They mainly assist en gineers and scientists. Many electronics technicians are engaged in research and development work, helping engi neers in the design and construction of experi mental models. They are also employed by man ufacturers to work on electronic equipment in customers’ establishments. Other electronics technicians work in highly technical inspecting, testing, and assembly jobs in the engineering laboratories of firms manufacturing electronic products. Draftsmen are usually employed in engineering departments to prepare drawings from sketches or specifications furnished by engineers. Manu facturers of military and space equipment gen erally employ a higher proportion of draftsmen than manufacturers of other types of electronic products. Engineering aids are another important group of technicians. They assist engineers by making calculations, sketches, and drawings, and by con ducting performance tests on components and systems. Laboratory technicians help physicists, chemists, and engineers by performing such duties as setting up apparatus and assisting in labora tory analyses and experiments. Some laboratory technicians may themselves conduct analyses and experiments, usually of a standardized, routine nature. Mathematical assistants help to solve mathematical problems, following procedures outlined by mathematicians. They also operate test equipment used in the development of elec tronic computers. Technical writers work closely with engineers, particularly in plants making military-space and industrial-commercial products and in establish ments doing research and development work. They prepare training and technical manuals ELECTRONICS MANUFACTURING describing the operation and maintenance of elec tronic equipment. They also prepare catalogs, product literature, and project reports and pro posals. Specifications writers compile lists of required measurements and materials. Technical illustrators draw pictures of electronic equipment, for technical publications and sales literature. Administrative, Clerical, and Related Occupa tions. A large number of workers in electronics manufacturing plants are in administrative or other office jobs. Administrative workers include purchasing agents, sales executives, personnel workers, and advertising personnel. Clerks, sec retaries, stenographers, typists, and business ma chine operators, many of whom are women, are among the thousands of other office workers employed by electronics manufacturing firms. A small but growing proportion of these office workers operate electronic computers and aux iliary equipment. Most of these computers are used to process office records, including payroll, production, costs, sales, and inventory data. Plant Occupations. About half of electronics manufacturing employees work in assembly, in specting and testing, machining, fabricating, processing, maintenance, and other plant opera tions. The proportion of workers in each of these operations differs among electronics plants de pending largely on whether end products or com ponents are produced, and the types manufac tured. For example, the proportion of assemblers is higher in plants making components and consumer end products than in plants producing military space equipment, and industrial-com mercial products. The proportion of machining and fabricating workers is higher among manu facturers of military-space equipment and in dustrial-commercial products than among manu facturers of other types of products. Assembly occupations (D.O.T. 729.884; 720.884; 726.781 and .884). Assemblers make up the larg est group of electronics plant workers. Both end-product and component manufacturing firms employ assemblers with many different skills. However, most assemblers a r e semi-skilled workers. Most end products are assembled mainly by hand, with small handtools, soldering irons, and light welding devices. Assemblers use diagrams, 659 models, and color-coded parts and wires to help them in their work. Some assembly work is done by following instructions presented on color slides and tape recordings. Color slides flash a picture of an assembly sequence on a viewing screen while the assembler listens to recorded directions. Precision assemblers install components and subassemblies into end products in which moving parts and mechanisms must operate within clear ances measured in thousandths of an inch. Some of these assembly workers do repair work, experi mental and developmental work, and model as sembly work. Most precision assemblers are employed in the manufacture of military-space and industrial-commercial electronic equipment. Machines are used in some assembly work on end products. For example, in putting together subassemblies such as circuit boards, automatic machines are often used to position components on the boards and to solder connections. Here the assemblers work as machine operators or loaders. Most components are assembled by machines, since their assembly involves many separate but simple and repetitive operations. Even some types of miniaturized semiconductors and other components, made with parts small enough to pass through the eye of a needle, are now as sembled on highly complex machines. Some of these machines are automatically controlled. Hand assembly is needed for some components, such as receiving tubes, special purpose tubes, and some types of transistors, diodes, capacitors, and resistors. Hand assemblers may only perform a single operation on these components as they move down the assembly line, but some may com pletely assemble a particular type of component. Tiny components are often hand-assembled under magnifying glasses or powerful microscopes. Hand assemblers may sometimes use machines to assist them in performing assembly operations on components. For example, precision welding equipment may be used to weld connections in microminiature components and circuit assem blies. Some circuit assemblies are so small that as many as 100 components may be precision welded in a cubic inch of space. Machines may also be used to position and hold component parts during assembly operations. 660 Skilled worker uses illuminated magnifying viewer to repair electronic component. Hand assemblers are also employed in elec tronics research laboratories and in the research and development departments of electronics man ufacturers. These workers—frequently called electronics technicians—generally do difficult as sembly work on small quantities of complex, often experimental, equipment. They may also work on the development of new ways to assemble large quantities of components or subassemblies by machine. Some electronics technicians install subassemblies into complex systems such as those in guided missiles. These hand assemblers usually must know enough electronics theory to under stand the operation of the items being assembled. Most assemblers are women. They are em ployed mainly as machine operators or tenders and as hand assemblers of items made in large quantities. Men are chiefly employed in experi mental assembly work, in model assembly, and in assembly jobs requiring relatively heavy work. Men are also employed in assembly departments as “trouble shooters.” These workers analyze end products and subassemblies which have failed OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK routine performance tests, to pinpoint the exact cause of faulty operation. Machining occupations. Metal machining work ers are employed in most electronics manufactur ing plants, particularly those making militaryspace and industrial-commercial products. Ma chine tool operators and machinists operate powerdriven machine tools to produce metal parts of electronic products. Toolmakers construct and repair jigs and fixtures used in the fabrication and assembly of parts. Diemakers specialize in mak ing metal forms (dies) used in punch and power presses to shape metal parts. Fabricating occupations. Fabricating workers are employed in many electronics manufacturing plants, but the largest proportion is in estab lishments producing industrial-commercial prod ucts. Among the fabricating workers are sheetmetal workers who make frames, chassis, and cabinets. Glass blowers and glass lathe operators (D.O.T. 674.782) are employed chiefly in elec tronic tube experimentation and development work; in the manufacture of special purpose tubes, which are made in small numbers; and in rebuilding television picture tubes. Other fabri cating workers include punch press operators, blanking machine operators and shear operators. Some fabricating jobs involve the molding, fir ing, and glazing of ceramics used as insulating materials in many components. Workers may also operate machines that mold plastic components. In electron tube manufacturing, special fabricat ing workers are employed. For example, grid lathe operators (D.O.T. 925.884) make grids (de vices in electronic tubes which control the flow of electrons) by winding fine wire around two heavy parallel wires. Other fabricating workers include spot welders, coil winders (D.O.T. 724.781 and .884) and crystal grinders and finishers (D.O.T. 726.884 and .085). Processing occupations. A relatively small but important group of electronics manufacturing workers are engaged in processing activities, chiefly in plants producing electronic components. Electroplaters and tinners (D.O.T. 501.885) coat many parts with metal. Anodizers (D.O.T. 501.782) treat parts in electrolytic and chemical baths to prevent corrosion. Silk screen oper ators (D.O.T. 726.887) print patterns on circuit boards and on parts of electronic components. ELECTRONICS MANUFACTURING Etching equipment operators (D.O.T. 590.885) do chemical etching of copper on circuit boards. Processing workers also impregnate or coat coils and other electronic components with waxes, oils, or other materials. Some operate machines which encase microminiature components in plas tic resin to join and insulate them in circuits, seal out moisture, and reduce chances of connec tion failure caused by heat and vibration. Another group of processing workers oper ate furnaces, ovens, and kilns, used chiefly to harden ceramics, bake on coatings, and eliminate contamination by gases and foreign materials. Operators of infrared ovens and hydrogen fur nace fires (D.O.T. 590.885) rid tubes of foreign deposits. In tube manufacturing, exhaust oper ators (D.O.T. 725.884) and sealers (D.O.T. 692.885) operate gas flame machines which seal the mount (the part of an electronic tube consisting of a Bakelite base and stem) in the tube, clear the tube of impurities, exhaust the gas, and seal the tube. Testing and inspection. Testing and inspection in electronics manufacturing begin when raw materials enter the plants, and continue through out fabricating operations. Finished components and end products undergo thorough testing and inspection, frequently including operation for a period of time, before shipment. In end-product manufacturing plants, testers use voltmeters, oscilloscopes, and other test meters to make certain that components, subassemblies, and end products conform to specifications. Many of these workers have job titles that indicate the type of work they do, such as analyzer, final tester, tuner tester, and operational tester. Some testing jobs require technically trained workers who have had several years of experience in electronic testing. These jobs are commonly found in research and development work, where electronics technicians test, adjust, and aline circuits and systems as part of their overall responsibility. These jobs are also found in complex production work, such as the manufac ture of missiles arid spacecraft. In component manufacturing plants, compo nents are checked manually by testers using various types of test meters, or routed mechan ically through automatic test equipment. Some automatic equipment can check 20 or more com- 661 “ Hot-line" tester checks solid-state circuit in high fidelity tuner. ponent characteristics and produce a punched tape of test results. Although many of these workers are simply called component testers, others have job titles which reflect the type of components they test, such as transformer tester, coil tester, and magnetic component tester. Work ers who feed or monitor automatic test equipment are often called test-set operators or testingmachine operators. The work of inspectors in end-product plants varies from checking incoming materials to in specting subassemblies and final products for flaws in circuit assembly, etching, plating, paint ing, and labeling. Electronic assembly inspectors (D.O.T. 722.281) examine assembled electronic units to make certain that they conform to blue prints and specifications, and check wire routing, electrical connections, and quality of units. 662 Mechanical and precision inspectors check me chanical assemblies and precision parts. Inspec tors in end-product plants may use tools such as measuring scales, micrometers, calipers, and mag nifying glasses in their work. Inspectors in component manufacturing plants check incoming raw materials and subassemblies before, during, and after fabricating and proc essing operations. They may inspect wire leads on diodes for straightness or length, wire winding on coils for eveness or breakage, and completed tubes for loose wires, scratched paint, corrosion, and defective etches and identifying labels. Some inspectors make repairs on defective components. Tools used by inspectors in components plants may include magnifying glasses, micrometers, calipers, tweezers, and, in some circumstances, microscopes. These inspectors may have job titles that indicate the work they do, such as incoming materials inspector, plating inspector, power tube inspector, coil inspector, machine parts inspector, and precision inspector. Maintenance occupations. Many maintenance workers with different types of training are em ployed in electronics manufacturing plants to take care of machinery and equipment. Skilled electricians are responsible for the proper opera tion of electrical equipment. Machine and equip ment repairmen perform mechanical repairs. Hy draulic mechanics specialize in maintaining hy draulic equipment. Maintenance machinists and welders build and repair equipment, jigs, and fixtures. Air-conditioning and refrigeration me chanics are employed in electronics plants which are air-conditioned and have special refrigerated and dust-free rooms. Painters, plumbers, pipe fitters, carpenters, sheet-metal workers, and other building maintenance craftsmen are also em ployed in electronics plants. Other plant occupations. P a r t s changer (D.O.T. 729.381) is another important occupation in electronic manufacturing p l a n t s . These workers repair assembled electronic products which have been tagged for replacement of defec tive parts. Women are frequently employed as parts changers. Many workers are employed in materials move ment and handling. These workers include oper ators of plant trucks and tractors; forklift opera tors who stack crates and load and unload trucks OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK and boxcars; and truckdrivers who handle trans portation outside the plant. Other occupations include boiler operator and stationary engineer. (Detailed discussions of professional, technical, mechanical, and other occupations found not only in electronics manufacturing plants but also in other industries are given elsewhere in the Hand book, in sections covering the individual occupa tions.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Electronics manufacturing plants employ many engineers, scientists, and technicians, because of the technical nature of plant production opera tions and the great emphasis on research and development work. Beginning engineering jobs are usually filled by recent graduates of engi neering colleges (some with advanced degrees). A small number of workers without college degrees are upgraded to professional engineering classifications from such occupations as engineer ing assistant and electronics technician. Workers who become engineers in this way usually have taken advanced electronics courses in night school or under other training programs. To keep up with new developments in their fields and to help them qualify for promotion, professional and technical personnel obtain additional training, read technical publications, and attend lectures and technical demonstrations. Almost all mathematicians, physicists, and other scientists employed in electronics manufac turing plants have college degrees and many have advanced degrees. Job prospects are usually better for scientists with at least a master’s degree than for those with only a bachelor’s degree. Technicians generally need some specialized training to qualify for their jobs. Most electronics technicians have attended either a public, private, or Armed Forces technical school. Some have ob tained their training through apprenticeships, usually of 3 or 4 years’ duration. Applicants with a high school education, including courses in mathematics and science, are preferred for these apprenticeships. Some workers become electronics technicians by being upgraded from such jobs as tester and experimental assembler, after they have developed required skills on the job and 663 ELECTRONICS MANUFACTURING acquired the necessary knowledge in basic elec tronics theory, mathematics, drafting, and read ing of schematic diagrams. This knowledge is usually obtained by taking courses in companyoperated classes, night school, junior college, tech nical school, or by correspondence. Electronics technicians need color vision, man ual dexterity, and good eye-hand coordination. As in the case of other technical workers, they must be able to understand technical publications. Some technicians who do final testing that re quires the operation of radio transmitting equip ment must hold licenses from the Federal Com munications Commission as first- or second-class commercial radiotelephone operators. Laboratory technicians, engineering and sci entific aids, and mathematical assistants fre quently have had 1 or more years of college training in a scientific or engineering field, but have not completed course requirements for a degree. In other cases, these workers have been upgraded from jobs as lower grade assistants in engineering laboratories or as high-grade testers in production departments. In hiring lower grade assistants, electronics firms give preference to high school graduates who have completed high school courses in mathematics, physics, and chemistry. Draftsmen usually enter their trade by taking a course in drafting at a trade or technical school; a few have completed a 3- or 4-year apprentice ship. Some qualify for their jobs under an informal arrangement with their employers which provides for both on-the-job training and parttime schooling. Because many draftsmen must understand the basic principles of electronic cir cuits to do their work, they should study basic electronic theory and circuits and the reading of electronic schematic diagrams. Technical writers must have a flair for writ ing and are usually required to have some tech nical training. Electronics firms prefer to hire those who have had some technical institute or college training in science or engineering. Some have college engineering degrees. Many have college degrees in English and journalism and have received their technical training on the job and by attending company-operated evening classes. Technical illustrators have usually attended special schools of art or design. Many tool and die makers, machinists, elec tricians, pipefitters, carpenters, and other crafts men in electronics manufacturing learn their trades by completing a 4- or 5-year apprentice ship. Some enter these trades through upgrading from helpers’ jobs. Some take courses at voca tional schools. Formal training in electronics is usually not necessary for workers entering plant jobs, but completion of high school is frequently required. Job applicants may have to pass aptitude tests and demonstrate skill for particular types of work. On-the-job training, usually for a short period, is generally provided for workers who have had no previous experience. Assemblers, testers, and inspectors need good vision, good color perception, manual dexterity, and patience. Requirements for filling administrative and other office jobs are similar to those in other indus tries. Certain beginning administrative jobs in electronics manufacturing are generally open only to college graduates with degrees in business administration, accounting, or engineering. More and more employers are requiring college train ing for administrative jobs in advertising, per sonnel, accounting, and sales. For clerical jobs, employers usually prefer applicants who are high school graduates with special training in stenog raphy, typing, bookkeeping, and office machine operation. Employment Outlook Electronics manufacturing will provide tens of thousands of job opportunities annually during the 1965-75 decade. A rapid rate of growth in electronics employment is expected, assuming re latively full employment in the Nation’s economy and the high levels of economic activity needed to achieve this goal. In addition to the many thousands of job opportunities resulting from employment growth, large numbers of job open ings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone will provide an estimated 28,000 job openings annually—about 10,000 for men and 18,000 for women. A rapid increase in the production of electronic equipment is anticipated in the decade ahead, but the rate of increase will vary by major prod uct category. The most rapid growth in output 664 is expected for industrial-commercial products. Businessmen are expected to spend increasing amounts for electronic equipment to automate and mechanize data processing and production proc esses, especially for such items as computers and numerical controls for machine tools. Demand is also expected to grow for navigational, test, educa tional, and radio communications equipment. For example, the use of two-way radio communications equipment by police and fire departments, public utilities, taxicab and trucking companies, pipeline firms, and other organizations is expected to spread rapidly. Production of electronic equip ment for the medical and atomic energy fields will also expand greatly. In addition, many new fields are being explored for applications of electronic controls, including automated highways and rail ways, water desalinization and purification, and information retrieval systems. The demand for consumer items is expected to increase with rising population, family forma tions, and personal spendable income. The out put of color television sets will expand steadily and a substantial rise is expected in the produc tion of radios and phonographs, and black and white television sets (particularly portable models). Other electronic consumer products, such as tape recorders, alarm systems, video-tape recorders, and ultrasonic dishwashers may be come common household equipment in the decade ahead. If no war or substantial disarmament occurs and if the Nation continues to maintain a de fense capability sufficient to deter potential aggres sors, the output of military and space electronics equipment during the decade ahead is expected to approximate the 1964 high levels. Output may be higher if expenditures are significantly increased for programs to explore outer space and the ocean depths. Although the military-space equip ment sector is expected to remain the largest in total electronics manufacturing, its proportionate share of total output is expected to decline slowly over the next decade, because of the anticipated rapid growth in other electronic products sectors. Expenditures for electronics research and de velopment are expected to continue at high levels. Such expenditures will contribute to employment growth in electronics manufacturing. Research and development activities usually result in new OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK and improved electronic products and new uses and markets for them. The increase in electronics employment prob ably will not be as great as the expansion in out put, because technological improvements in pro duction methods are expected to increase output per worker. For example, increasing mechaniza tion of operations formerly done by hand tends to reduce labor requirements, particularly in plants where products are mass-produced, such as tele vision and radio sets, and components. However, mechanized and automated manufacturing proc esses are difficult to adapt to the fabrication of many types of highly complex electronic products made in small quantities and subject to frequent design changes. Although the demand for workers in electronics manufacturing is expected to grow during the decade ahead, rates of employment growth will vary among the various occupational groups and individual occupations. For example, the demand for skilled maintenance personnel, particularly instrument repairmen, is expected to rise at a rapid rate, because of the need to maintain and repair the increasing amounts of complex ma chinery. Employment of semiskilled workers is anticipated to rise slowly because of the growing mechanization and automation of assembly line operations. The overall demand for engineers, scientists, and technicians is expected to increase because of continued high expenditures for re search and development, and the continuing trend toward the production of complex equip ment. Among professional and technical workers, the greatest demand will be for engineers with advanced degrees, particularly those who have a background in certain specialized fields, includ ing quantum mechanics, solid-state circuitry, product design, and industrial engineering. A new and growing area of specialization for engi neers is in underwater research. Engineers with experience in oceanography, or even scuba div ing, were in demand in early 1965. Electronics manufacturers are also looking for engineers who have selling ability. The demand for such work ers will continue because the increasing com plexity of industrial and commercial equipment will require salesmen with highly technical back grounds. The demand for mathematicians and physicists will be particularly great because of 665 ELECTRONICS MANUFACTURING expanding research in computer and laser tech nology. Earnings and Working Conditions Average hourly and weekly earnings of pro duction workers in electronics manufacturing in dustries vary considerably by type of product produced. As shown in the following tabulation, production workers in industries making mili tary-space and industrial-commercial products had higher average earnings in 1964 than those in industries producing other major types of elec tronic products. T ype of product A ll m a n u fa c tu r in g in d u s tr ie s _____________________ M a jo r e le c tr o n ic s m a n u fa c tu r in g in d u str ie s : M ilita r y -s p a c e a n d in d u str ia l-c o m m e r c ia l e le c tr o n ic s e n d p r o d u c t s - ________________ _______ - .............— E le c tr o n t u b e s ______________________________________ . R a d io a n d te le v is io n r e c e iv in g s e ts , a n d p h o n o g r a p h s ______________________________________________ S e m ic o n d u c to r s a n d o th e r c o m p o n e n ts , e x c e p t t u b e s . ________ Average Average hourly weekly earnings earnings $2 .5 3 $102.97 2 .7 3 2.4 1 110.84 9 9 .05 2 .2 3 87.8 6 2 .0 7 8 1 .97 Earnings of individual production workers may differ from the averages shown above since such earnings depend not only on the type of plant in which they work but also on factors such as skill level and experience, length of service, geographic location, and amount of overtime. Electronics workers generally receive premium pay for overtime work and for work on Sundays and holidays. Virtually all plants provide extra pay for evening and night shift work. Many workers in electronics manufacturing plants receive 2 or 3 weeks7vacation with pay, de pending on their length of service, and from 6 to 8 paid holidays a year. Almost all electronics workers are covered by health and life insurance plans; many are covered by pension plans and other fringe benefits. Working conditions in electronics manufactur ing compare favorably with those in other in dustries. Plants are usually well lighted, clean and quiet. Many plants are relatively new and are located in suburban and semirural areas. Most plant departments are air conditioned where sterile conditions or air temperature control is necessary for the manufacture of certain types of electronic equipment. The work in most elec tronics occupations is not strenuous. Many as sembly line operations are repetitious. Music dur ing working hours, cafeterias, recreational facil ities, and social programs are provided for em ployees by some electronics manufacturing firms. The frequency of injuries in electronics manu facturing is far below the average in manufac turing as a whole, and injuries are usually less severe. Many workers in electronics manufacturing are covered by labor-management agreements. The principal unions involved are the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Work ers ; International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; and the United Elec trical, Radio and Machine Workers of America (Ind.). Where To G o for More Information Further information concerning careers in electronics manufacturing can be obtained from the public relations department of individual electronics manufacturing companies and from : Electronic Industries Association, 2001 Eye St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. OCCUPATIONS IN FOUNDRIES The metal castings produced by foundry work ers are essential parts of thousands of products ranging from automobile engines to cooking utensils. In early 1965, an estimated 400,000 workers were employed in the Nation’s foundries and in foundry departments of other manufactur ing establishments. Foundry production workers had higher average hourly earnings than produc tion workers in manufacturing as a whole. Casting is a method of forming metal into a wide range of intricate shapes. To cast metal, a mold is prepared with a cavity in it that has been shaped by a pattern, or model, of the object to be cast. Metal is then melted and poured into the mold cavity, where it cools and solidifies. Castings may range in length from a fraction of an inch to many feet. They may weigh any where from less than an ounce to many tons. The considerable strength and rigidity of cast objects makes the casting process suitable for producing thousands of items for household and industrial uses. Among these products are machine bases, ship propellers, bearings, industrial valves, water faucets, water mains, engine blocks, dies, gears, motor frames, railroad car wheels, and aircraft and missile components. Nature and Location of Foundry Work An estimated 300,000 of the foundry industry’s workers are employed in ferrous foundries— those that make castings of iron and steel. About 60 percent of these workers are employed in ferrous foundries that produce gray and ductile iron castings; the remainder are employed in mal leable iron and steel foundries. About 100,000 workers are employed in nonferrous foundries. Most of this group work in foundries that make brass, bronze, aluminum, magnesium, and zinc castings. Foundries usually specialize in cast ing a particular metal, since somewhat different methods and equipment are used in melting and in casting the different metals. However, many 666 nonferrous foundries and some ferrous foundries cast several metals. With additional training, foundry workers can transfer from foundries casting one type of metal to foundries casting a different one. In general, foundries are either small- or medium-size plants. More than 90 percent em ploy fewer than 250 workers each. However, large foundries with 500 or more workers employ more than one-third of all foundry workers. More than two-thirds of the foundry workers are employed in independent shops that sell their castings to other firms. Most of the remaining workers are employed in the foundry departments of plants that use castings in their final products, such as machinery and motor vehicles. A few foundry workers are employed in foundry pattern shops in various metalworking plants, and in shops that make patterns on order. There are five principal methods of casting, each named for the type of mold used. The most common of these is green-sand molding. In this method, sand composed chiefly of silica and clay is packed in a boxlike container, called a flask, around a pattern. After the pattern is with drawn, molten metal is poured into the mold cavity to form the desired metal shape. Sand molds can be used only once, but the sand is usu ally reconditioned and reused. A second method, called permanent molding, employs a metal instead of a sand mold. Metal molds, which can be used many times, are used chiefly for casting nonferrous products. Precision investment casting, a third method (often known as the “lost wax” process), uses ceramic molds. In this method, a wax or plastic pattern is coated with refractory clay. After the coating hardens, the pattern is melted and drained, leaving a mold cavity into which molten metal is poured. Castings produced from these molds are precise and require little machining. Shell molding, a fourth process, is becoming in creasingly important. In this method, a heated FOUNDRY OCCUPATIONS metal pattern is covered with sand coated with resin. The sand forms a thin shell mold that, after curing, is stripped from the pattern. Cast ings produced from these molds are precise and have a smooth surface. The process is used even more widely to make cores, which form a cavity in the castings. Die casting, a fifth process, is done entirely by machines operated by die-casting machine opera tors. In this method, molten metal is forced under high pressure into steel dies from which the cast ings are later automatically ejected, or removed by hand, when the metal solidifies. Small foundries generally produce small amounts of different kinds of castings for nearby metal fabricating plants. These foundries or dinarily have little mechanized equipment. They employ hand and machine molders and core makers (the key foundry occupations), and a substantial number of unskilled laborers. Many of these foundries produce large castings, and require the skills of floor molders. Large foundries are often highly mechanized and produce great quantities of identical cast ings. These shops employ relatively few unskilled laborers because cranes, conveyors, and other types of materials-handling equipment are used in place of hand labor to move materials, molds, and castings. However, proportionately more skilled maintenance workers, such as millwrights and electricians, are employed in these foundries to service and repair the large amount of ma chinery and equipment. Also, these shops employ proportionately fewer skilled molders and core makers. There are foundry jobs in every State and in most large- and medium-size cities in the country. Because foundries usually are located near plants where their castings are used, foundry jobs tend to be concentrated in States where there is con siderable metalworking activity; for example, in Michigan, Ohio, Illinois, Pennsylvania, Indiana, and Wisconsin. 667 industries. To explain more clearly the duties of these workers, a brief description of the jobs involved in the most common casting process— sand casting—follows: After the casting is designed, the 'pattern maker makes a wood or metal pattern in the shape of the casting desired. Next, a hand molder (D.O.T. 518.381) makes sand molds by packing and ramming sand, specially prepared by a sand mixer (D.O.T. 579.782), around the pattern. A molder's helper (D.O.T. 519.887) may assist in these operations. If large numbers of identical castings are to be made, molding machines may be used to make the molds at a faster speed than is possible by hand. The operator of this equip ment is called a machine molder. A coremaker shapes sand, specially prepared by a sand mixer, into cores (bodies of sand de signed usually to create hollow spaces in cast ings). Most cores are baked in an oven by a core-oven tender (D.O.T. 518.885). Core parts or sections are put together by a core assembler (D.O.T. 518.887). After the cores are assem bled, they are placed in the molds by coresetters (D.O.T. 518.884). Now, the molds are ready for the molten metal to be poured. Foundry Occupations More than four-fifths of the approximately 400,000 workers in foundries and foundry de partments in early 1965 were employed in plant occupations. More than half of the plant workers were employed in occupations not found in other Pourers fill molds on conveyor line with molten aluminum. 668 A melter, or cupola tender (D.O.T. 512.782, .411, .441, and .572), operates the furnace that melts the metal. The metal is usually poured into molds by a pourer (D.O.T. 514.884), although in some small foundries molders may perform this task. When the castings have cooled, they are shaken from the molds by a shakeout man (D.O.T. 519.887) and sent to the cleaning and finishing department. The dirty and rough surfaces of the castings are cleaned and smoothed by blasting or tumbling, and chipping and grinding. A shotblaster (D.O.T. 503.887) operates a machine that cleans the castings by blasting them with air mixed with metal shot or grit. The castings may be smoothed by tumbling. In this process, the castings to gether with an abrasive material, and sometimes water, are placed in a barrel which is rotated. As the barrel turns, the castings tumble against each other, thereby removing sand, burrs, and scale. The man who controls the barrel is called a tumbler operator (D.O.T. 599.885). Sand blasters and tumbler operators may also operate a machine which both tumbles and blasts the castings. A chipper (D.O.T. 809.884) and a grinder (D.O.T. 809.884) use pneumatic chisels, powered abrasive wheels, powersaws, and handtools, such as hammers, chisels, and files, to re move excess metal and to finish the castings. Castings are frequently heat treated in fur naces to improve the physical properties of the metal; a heat treater, or annealer (D.O.T. 504.782), operates these furnaces. Before the cast ings are packed for shipment, a casting inspector (D.O.T. 514.687) checks them to make sure they are structurally sound and meet blueprint specifi cations. The estimated number of workers in the prin cipal occupations unique to foundries and foundry departments are shown in chart 34. Detailed discussions of three of these occupations— patternmakers, coremakers, and molders—follow this chapter. Many foundry workers are employed in occu pations that are common to other industries. For example, foundry maintenance mechanics, ma chinists, carpenters, and millwrights maintain and repair plant and equipment. Crane and der rick operators and truckdrivers move castings and casting materials from place to place. Ma- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK CHART 34 EMPLOYMENT IN SELECTED FOUNDRY OCCUPATIONS T h o u s a n d s of w o r k e r s , 1 9 6 4 ' 1 E sti m ate d. chine tool operators finish castings in the many foundries that do machine finishing work. Foundries also employ thousands of workers in relatively unskilled jobs, such as guard, janitor, laborer, and helper. Nearly a fifth of all foundry workers are em ployed in professional, technical, administrative, clerical, and sales occupations. Of these person nel, the largest number are clerical workers, such as secretaries, stenographers, typists, and account ing clerks. Foundries also employ substantial numbers of professional and technical workers, such as en gineers, and metallurgists. Some of these em ployees do research; others make designs and layouts of machinery and equipment; control the quality of castings; or supervise plant operations and maintenance. In recent years, increasing numbers of these workers have been hired to sell castings and to assist customers in designing cast parts. Foundry technicians are employed in a variety of functions concerning the control of quality in casting production. For example, they may test molding and coremaking sand, make chemical analyses of metal, and operate machines that test the strength and hardness of 669 FOUNDRY OCCUPATIONS castings. In this work they may use X-ray or magnetic apparatus to inspect the internal struc ture of castings. Administrative workers employed in foundries include office managers, personnel workers, pur chasing agents, plant managers, and other super visory workers. (Detailed discussions of professional, technical, mechanical, office, and other occupations found in the foundry industry as well as in many other industries are given in the sections of the Hand book covering individual occupations.) The foundry work force is predominately male, since much of the work connected with the pro duction of castings is strenuous. Women are employed primarily in office jobs, although some are employed in production occupations such as coremaker. Women also assemble wax and plastic patterns in investment casting foundries. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most foundry plant workers start in unskilled jobs, such as laborer or helper. Specialized jobs in the plant are frequently filled by promotion. A worker may begin as a laborer and, after re ceiving informal on-the-job training from a foreman or experienced wmrker, he may gradually learn how to perform the more skilled jobs. This is the usual practice in training workers for such direct casting process jobs as melter, chipper, and grinder. Some skilled foundry workers—particularly hand molders, hand coremakers, and pattern makers—learn their jobs through formal appren ticeship. In this type of training, the young worker is given supervised on-the-job training for a period of 4 or 5 years, usually supplemented by classroom instruction. A worker who has completed an apprenticeship program is usually preferred by foundry management because he has a greater working knowledge of all foundry operations and is, therefore, better qualified to fill supervisory jobs. An increasing number of skilled foundry workers learn their jobs through a combination of trade school and on-the-job training. Begin ning workers may attend trade schools that offer training in foundry work before entering a formal apprenticeship program; in some cases, trade school courses may be credited toward completion of formal apprenticeships. Employment Outlook The foundry industry will hire thousands of workers annually during the 1965-75 decade, mainly to replace experienced workers who trans fer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Be cause the industry employs a large number of workers, retirements and deaths alone will pro vide about 9,000 job openings annually. Addi tional openings will result from the expected moderate growth in employment in foundries and foundry departments during the decade ahead, assuming relatively full employment and the high levels of economic activity needed to achieve this goal. Because foundry production employ ment fluctuates widely with general business conditions, employment will increase less rapidly than projected if relatively full employment and high levels of economic activity are not achieved. A substantial increase in foundry production is expected during the decade ahead. Growing population and rising levels of personal dispos able income will result in greater demand for castings and products that include cast parts. These products include, for example, automobiles, plumbing fixtures, air conditioners, household ap pliances, and gas and water lines. New ma chinery, much of which will'be made with cast components, will also be needed to produce the increasing quantity of goods needed to satisfy the requirements of an expanding population. In addition, the need for additional transporta tion equipment to transport the output of a growing economy will stimulate the demand for castings used in trucks, buses, railroad cars, ships, and aircraft. Foundry employment is expected to rise at a much slower rate than production. Continued improvements in casting methods, particularly in machine molding and coremaking, and the increasing use of machinery for materials han dling, will result in greater output per foundry worker. Employment is expected to rise faster in some occupations than in others; in a few occupations, employment may actually decline. For example, scientists, engineers, and other technical person nel are expected to increase more rapidly than 670 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK other workers as a result of expanding research activity in such fields as quality control and casting methods. Technicians also will be needed in greater numbers as the foundry industry in troduces improved quality control procedures and new production techniques. More maintenance workers and operators of materials moving ma chines will be needed because of the increasing use of materials-handling equipment and more complex processing equipment. In contrast, the number of hand molders, hand coremakers, and other hand processing workers will show little change, because of the increasing substitution of machine molding and coremaking for hand proc esses. The number of laborers and other un skilled workers employed in the industry will continue to decline. Earnings and Working Conditions Wages in foundries are somewhat above the average for all manufacturing. In mid-1965, earn ings of production workers in iron and steel foun dries averaged $127.16 a week, or $2.89 an hour. In nonferrous foundries, the average was $113.13 a week, or $2.70 an hour. By comparison, production workers in all manufacturing industries had aver age earnings of $108.21 a week, or $2.62 an hour. Collective bargaining contracts negotiated be tween foundry employers and unions generally included provisions for fringe benefits, such as holiday pay, vacation pay, and retirement pen sions. Other important benefits often included in such contracts were life, hospital, surgical, sickness, and accident insurance. Working conditions in foundries have im proved in recent years. Many foundries have re duced the heat, fumes, and smoke that are part of foundry operations through the installation of modern ventilating systems and improved plant layout. Although the rate of disabling work injuries in foundries is higher than the average for all manufacturing industries, employers and unions attempt to eliminate injuries by promot ing safety training and the use of protective equipment, such as face shields, metal toe shoes, metal helmets, and safety glasses. Various labor unions have foundry workers in their membership. Among these unions are the International Molders’ and Allied Workers’ Union of North America; the United Steel workers of America; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; and the Inter national Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers. Many patternmakers are members of the Pattern Makers’ League of North America. Where To G o for More Information For further information about work and/or training opportunities in foundry occupations, inquiries should be directed to local foundries; the local office of the State employment service; the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency or the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor; and the following organizations: Foundry Educational Foundation, 1138 Terminal Tower, Cleveland, Ohio 44113. International Molders’ and Allied Workers’ Union of North America, 1225 East McMillan St., Cincinnati, Ohio 45206. National Foundry Association, 9838 Roosevelt Road, P.O. Box 76, Westchester, 111. 60156. Non-Ferrous Founders’ Society, Inc., 509 Terminal Tower, Cleveland, Ohio 44113. Gray and Ductile Iron Founders’ Society, Inc., National City-East 6th Bldg., Cleveland, Ohio 44114. American Foundrymen’s Society, Golf and Wolf Rds., Des Plaines, 111. 60016. Malleable Founders’ Society, 781 Union Commerce Bldg., Cleveland, Ohio 44114. Steel Founders’ Society of America, 606 Terminal Tower, Cleveland, Ohio 44113. Patternmakers Nature of Work F oundry 'patternmakers are highly skilled craftsmen who build patterns used in making molds in which foundry castings are formed. Most of the workers in the occupation are metal patternmakers (D.O.T. 600.280) ; a somewhat smaller number are wood patternmakers (D.O.T. 661.281). In the last decade or so, increasing 671 FOUNDRY OCCUPATIONS use has been made of plaster and plastics in patternmaking. Although these materials are used mainly by wood patternmakers, they are also used by metal patternmakers. In addition, a small number of patternmakers work exclu sively with plaster and plastics. Patternmakers work from blueprints prepared by the engineering department. They make a precise pattern for the product, allowing for shrinkage of molten metal used in the casting process and for other factors. The metal patternmaker prepares patterns from metal stock or, more commonly, from rough castings made from an original wood pattern. To shape and finish the patterns, he uses a vari ety of metalworking machines, including the engine lathe, drill press, shaper, milling machine, power hacksaw, and grinder, as well as small handtools. The wood patternmaker selects the appropriate woodstock, lays out the pattern, marks the design for each section on the proper piece of wood, and saws each piece roughly to size. He then shapes the rough pieces into final form, using various woodworking machines, such as circular saws, lathes, planers, bandsaws, and sanders, as well as many small handtools. Finally, he assembles the pattern segments by hand, using glue, screws, and nails. A high degree of accuracy is required to make patterns, since any imperfection in the pattern will be reproduced in the castings made from it. Throughout his work, the patternmaker care fully checks each dimension of the pattern, using a variety of measuring instruments such as shrink rules, calipers, micrometers, and gages. Patternmakers also may make core boxes (in much the same manner as patterns are con structed) and repair patterns and core boxes. More than half of the patternmakers work in specially equipped foundry pattern shops in plants making such products as machinery, transportation equipment, and fabricated metal products. Other patternmakers work in plants that make patterns on order, or in pattern shops in independent foundries. Training and Other Qualifications Apprenticeship is the principal means of quali fying as a journeyman patternmaker. Because 1778—316 0 — 65-------44 Metal patternmaker operates boring mill. of the high degree of skill and the wide range of knowledge needed for patternmaking, it is diffi cult to learn the trade informally on the job. In some instances, skilled machinists have been able to transfer to metal patternmaking with additional on-the-job training or experience. Good trade school courses in patternmaking pro vide useful preparation for the prospective ap prentice. Such courses may be credited toward completion of the apprenticeship period. How ever, these courses do not substitute for appren ticeship or other on-the-job training. The usual apprenticeship period for pattern making is 5 years. At least 144 hours of class room instruction in related technical subjects is normally provided annually. There are sepa rated apprenticeship programs for wood and metal patternmaking. The patternmaker apprentice begins by help ing journeymen in routine duties. Then he makes simple patterns under close supervision, gradu ally learning to use the various types of ma chines and handtools. As his training progresses, 672 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK the work becomes increasingly complex and the supervision more general. Patternmaking, although not strenuous, re quires considerable standing and moving about. A high degree of manual dexterity is especially important because of the precise nature of many hand operations. The ability to visualize objects in three dimensions is also important. Employers generally require patternmaker apprentices to have had at least a high school education. individual patterns needed to produce a given number of castings. Because patternmakers learn either basic metalworking or woodworking skills, they can find jobs in related fields when patternmaking employment is not available. Wood pattern makers can qualify for skilled woodworking jobs, such as cabinetmaker, and metal patternmakers can transfer their skills to machining occupations such as machinist or layout man. Employment Outlook Earnings and Working Conditions There will be a few thousand job openings for foundry patternmakers, mainly metal pattern makers, during the 1965-75 decade. Most job openings will result from the need to replace experienced patternmakers who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Ketirements and deaths alone will create about 400 job openings annually. Employment of foundry patternmakers—who numbered about 19,000 in early 1965—is expected to increase slowly during the decade ahead, de spite the anticipated substantial increase in foundry production. The need for patternmakers will not increase as fast as production, because of the greater use of metal patterns in the pro duction of large numbers of identical castings. Metal patterns can be used many times to make identical molds, thereby reducing the number of Skilled patternmakers generally have higher average straight-time earnings than other skilled foundry workers. However, the earnings of both wood and metal patternmakers depend on the skill requirements of the job, the type of metal poured, and the geographic location of the foundries in which they are employed. Generally, metal patternmakers have higher average hourly earnings than wood patternmakers. In January 1965, average straight-time hourly earnings of wood patternmakers ranged from $3.25 in gray iron and malleable foundries to $4 in steel found ries, according to a national survey of wages and fringe benefits for 26 foundry occupations in 54 labor areas, made by the National Foundry Association. See “Where To Go for More Information” in the introductory section of this chapter. Molders Nature of Work The molder prepares a mold, made of specially prepared sand, which contains a hollow space in the shape of the item to be made. The mold is made by packing and ramming prepared sand around a pattern—a model of the object to be duplicated—in a molding box called a flask. A flask is usually made in two parts which can be separated to allow removal of the pattern by the molder without damaging the mold cavity. Molten metal is poured into the cavity which, when solidified, forms the casting. A molder uses pneumatic-powered rammers and handtools, such as trowels, shovels, and mallets, to handle, compact, and smooth the sand in molds made by hand. Most of the more than 50,000 workers in this occupation in early 1965 were machine molders; the rest were hand—bench and floor—molders. Machine molders (D.O.T. 518.782) operate ma chines which simplify and speed the making of large quantities of identical sand molds. Machine molders assemble the flask (molding box) and pat tern on the machine table, fill the flask with pre pared sand, and operate the machine by the properly timed use of its control levers and pedals. Many machine molders are skilled workers who set up and adjust their own machines. Some ma chine molders are semskilled workers whose duties are limited to operating machines which are set up for them by more experienced molders or main tenance men. 673 FOUNDRY OCCUPATIONS Hand molders use trowels to finish floor mold. Bench and floor molders use mainly hand methods to make the sand molds. Molds for small castings are usually made on the workbench by bench molders (D.O.T. 518.381); those for large and bulky castings are made on the foundry floor by -floor molders (D.O.T. 518.381). Skill require ments in this occupation vary considerably. An all-round hand molder (journeyman) makes many different kinds of molds. A less skilled molder does more repetitive work, specializing in a few simple types of molds. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Completion of a 4-year apprentice training program, or the equivalent in experience, is needed to become a journeyman molder and thus qualify both for all-round hand molding and for the specialized skilled or supervisory jobs. Men with this training are also preferred for some kinds of machine molding. The molder apprentice works under the close supervision of journeymen who instruct him in the skills of the craft. About half of the appren tice training is devoted directly to molding. The apprentice begins with a simple job, such as shoveling sand; and gradually takes on more difficult and responsible work, such as ramming molds, withdrawing patterns, and setting cores. He also learns to operate the various types of molding machines. As his training progresses, he makes complete molds, beginning with simple shapes and progressing to those of increasing complexity. This training includes both floorwork and benchwork. In addition, the apprentice may work in other foundry departments to de velop all-round knowledge of foundry methods and practice. The apprentice usually receives at least 144 hours of classroom instruction each year in such subjects as shop arithmetic, metallurgy, and shop drawing. Molders’ helpers and less-skilled hand molders frequently learn molding skills informally on the job, and then seek jobs as journeymen. However, this way of learning the trade is often lengthier and less reliable than apprenticeship. Hand molders who do highly repetitive work usually learn their jobs during a brief training period. “Learners” (either men without previous foundry experience or upgraded foundry helpers) work with a molder engaged in making a par ticular kind of mold. After 2 to 6 months of this training, the learner is usually competent to make the same mold, or one that is roughly similar, without close supervision. The more difficult and responsible types of machine molding jobs also require formal or equivalent training. However, most machine molding jobs can be learned in 60 to 90 days of on-the-job training. An eighth grade education usually is the minimum requirement for apprenticeship. Many employers, however, require additional education up to and including high school graduation for apprenticeship in skilled hand molding or ma chine molding jobs. Physical standards for molding jobs are fairly high. The molder stands at his work, moves about a great deal, and must do frequent lifting. The hand molder needs a high degree of manual dexterity and good vision. Since the work is fairly strenuous, very few women are employed as molders. Employment Outlook The need to replace molders who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die will provide most of the job openings for new workers in this trade during the 1965-75 decade. Retirements and deaths alone will provide more than 1,000 openings annually. Several hundred of these openings will be for molding apprentices. There will also be openings each year for workers in 674 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK entry jobs in machine molding and in the less skilled types of hand molding. Employment of molders is expected to increase slowly during the decade ahead, despite the anticipated substantial increase in foundry pro duction. The demand for molders will not in crease as fast as foundry production, since the trend is toward more machine molding and less hand molding, and the increasing use of perma nent molds and shell molds. of bench molders and squeezer-machine molders was $2.67; heavy machine molders, $2.72; and floor molders, $2.82, according to a national sur vey of wages and fringe benefits for 26 foundry occupations in 54 labor areas, made by the National Foundry Association. As shown in the following tabulation of average (mean) straighttime hourly earnings for molding occupations, the highest earnings were received by floor molders and bench molders in steel foundries: Earnings and Working Conditions T y p e of F oundry The earnings of molders depend on several factors, including the type of molding work performed—hand or machine; the specific type of hand or machine work performed; the skill requirements of the job; the type of metal poured; and the geographic location of the foundry in which they are employed. In January 1965, the average (median) straight-time hourly earnings T ype of M older Floor__ Bench Heavy machine Squeezer machine Oray Iron and M alleable $2. 72 2. 62 2.62 2.72 Steel $2. 2. 2. 2. 87 87 67 67 N onferrous $2. 2. 2. 2. 72 67 62 62 See “Where To Go for More Information” in the introductory section of this chapter. Coremakers Nature of Work Coremakers prepare the “cores” which are placed in molds to form the hollows or holes usually required in metal castings. The poured metal solidifies around the core so that when the core is removed, the desired cavity or con tour remains. A core may be made either by hand or machine. In both instances, prepared sand is packed into a core box, a block of wood or metal into which a hollow space of the size and shape of the desired core has been cut. After the core has been removed from the core box, it is hardened either by baking or by other drying methods. When hand methods are used to make a core, the coremaker uses mallets and other handtools to pack and ram sand into the core box. In hand coremaking, small cores are made on the workbench by bench coremakers (D.O.T. 518.381) and bulky cores are made on the foundry floor by floor coremakers (D.O.T. 518.381). There is a wide range of skill requirements in this occupation. All-round hand coremakers (journeymen) prepare large and intricate cores. The less skilled coremakers make smaller and simpler cores. Their work is highly repetitive because they frequently produce large quantities of identical cores. Many skilled coremakers are employed as supervisors. Machine coremakers (D.O.T. 518.885) operate machines which make sand cores by forcing sand into specially shaped hollow forms. Some ma chine coremakers are required to set up and adjust their own machines and do finishing operations on the cores. Other coremakers are primarily ma chine tenders. They are closely supervised and their machines are adjusted for them. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Completion of a 4-year apprentice training program or the equivalent in experience is needed to become a skilled hand coremaker. Coremaking apprenticeships are also sometimes required for the more difficult and responsible machine core making jobs. Only a brief period of on-the-job training is needed for less skilled hand coremak ing and for most machine coremaking jobs. Training in coremaking and molding are often combined in a single apprenticeship. The coremaking apprentice works with jour neymen coremakers, first helping them in routine duties and then undertaking more advanced work, such as making simple cores, or operating 675 FOUNDRY OCCUPATIONS Some types of hand coremaking require a high degree of manual dexterity. Women are fre quently employed to do light coremaking. Employment Outlook Most job openings for coremakers during the 1965-75 decade will result from the need to re place experienced coremakers who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone will create about 500 job open ings annually. The employment of coremakers—who num bered about 25,000 in early 1965—is expected to increase slowly during the decade ahead, despite the anticipated substantial increase in foundry production. The demand for coremakers will not increase as fast as production, because of the growing use of machine-made, rather than hand made, cores. Earnings and Working Conditions Coremaker operates machine that forces sand into hollow forms. core ovens. As his skill increases, the apprentice makes more complex cores. He acquires experi ence in benchwork and floorwork and in the oper ation of coremaking machines used in the plant. On-the-job training is generally supplemented by classroom instruction covering such subjects as arithmetic, shop drawing, and the properties of metals. Hand coremakers with all-round train ing have opportunities for promotion to super visory jobs. An eighth grade education is usually a mini mum requirement for coremaking apprentice training; some employers require apprentices to be high school graduates. Persons without previous foundry experience may be hired directly for the less skilled core making jobs, or foundry laborers or helpers may be upgraded to do this work. Physical requirements for light coremaking are not exact ing because the work is not very strenuous. The earnings of both hand and machine core makers depend not only on the skill requirements of the job, but also on the type of metal poured and the geographic location of the foundry in which they are employed. In January 1965, the average (median) straight-time hourly earnings of bench coremakers was $2.67; floor coremakers, $2.87; and machine coremakers, $2.82, according to a national survey of wages and fringe benefits for 26 foundry occupations in 54 labor areas, made by the National Foundry Association. As shown in the following tabulation of average (mean) straight-time hourly earnings for core making occupations, the highest averages were recorded for floor and bench coremakers in steel foundries and floor coremakers in nonferrous foundries: T yp e of Foundry Gray Iron and M alleable Occupation Floor coremaker Bench coremaker Machine coremaker ___ ___ ___ $2. 82 2. 57 2. 52 Steel $2. 87 2. 87 2. 85 N onferrous $2. 87 2. 57 2. 40 See “Where To Go for More Information” in the introductory section of this chapter. HOTEL OCCUPATIONS Throughout the United States, travelers find hotels and motels ready to provide them with a “home-away-from-home.” Almost 600,000 people worked in these hotels, motels, and related busi nesses in 1965. Nearly 4 out of 5 were employed in the Nation’s more than 25,000 hotels and motor hotels, chiefly in urban areas. Of the remainder, most worked in the substantially larger number of motels and tourist courts located on the outskirts of large cities, along major high ways, and, to some extent, in resort areas. A few were employed in related businesses such as sum mer camps and dude ranches. Slightly less than half of the employees in hotels and related busi nesses were women. Some hotel occupations can be entered with little or no specialized training. In many kinds of hotel work, however, the demand for specially trained people is increasing. Hotels are complex organizations and need personnel with specialized training and experience in the business, to direct and coordinate operations which may involve thousands of guests annually and millions of dollars o f property and equipment. This chapter deals with employment oppor tunities in hotels, motels, and related businesses. Following the introductory sections are separate statements on several hotel occupations. The Hotel Business and Its Workers Hotels are of three main types—commercial, residential, and resort. The vast majority are commercial hotels which cater chiefly to trans ients—that is, travelers seeking a room for a brief stay. A relatively small number are residential hotels, which chiefly accommodate people for long periods, ranging from a few months to many years. Others are resort hotels, which provide lodging for vacationers. Motor hotels, motels, and other establishments cater especially to vaca tioners and other travelers seeking accomodations 676 for a short time. Commercial and residential hotels generally operate the year round. Although many resort hotels, motor hotels, and motels are open for only part of the year—for example, dur ing the winter season in Florida, or the summer months in northern parts of the country—an in creasing number are remaining open the year round. Hotels range in size from those with less than 25 rooms and only a few employees, to some with 1,000 or more rooms and many hundreds of workers. In the past few years, an increasing number of motor hotels, some with a hundred or more rooms, have been built, and these may have large staffs. Most motels, however, are rel atively small, including a sizable number which are run by the owners with few, if any, paid em ployees. Most hotels have restaurants, ranging from simple coffee shops to vast dining rooms, wine cellars, and elaborate kitchens. Large city hotels and motor hotels also may have banquet rooms, exhibit halls, and spacious ballrooms—to accom modate conventions, business meetings, and social gatherings. Many hotels, especially in resort areas, have recreational facilities such as swim ming pools, golf courses, and tennis courts. For the convenience of guests, hotels may provide in formation about interesting places to visit, sell tickets to theaters and sporting events, and even call in babysitters. Their facilities often include newsstands, gift shops, barber and beauty shops, laundry and valet services, and railroad and air line ticket reservation offices. Motels and tourist courts usually offer fewer services than hotels. The number with restaurants, swimming pools, and other conveniences for guests is steadily in creasing, however. Because of the many services they offer, hotels need workers in a wide variety of occupations. One of the largest groups of hotel employees is in the housekeeping department. Many thousands 677 HOTEL OCCUPATIONS of maids, porters, housemen, linen room attend ants, and laundry room workers are employed in “back of the house” jobs—to make beds, clean rooms and halls, move furniture, hang draperies, provide guests with fresh linens and towels, op erate laundry equipment, and mark and inspect laundered items. Women are usually employed for the lighter housekeeping tasks, whereas men have jobs requiring more strenuous physical effort, such as washing walls and arranging furni ture. Large hotels and motor hotels usually em ploy executive housekeepers to supervise these workers, and some hotels may also have a special manager in charge of laundry operations. In most hotels, a uniformed staff performs services in the lobby. This staff includes the bellmen who carry baggage for guests and escort them to their rooms. Doormen are also a part of the uniformed staff, as are elevator operators. The front office staff work as room clerks, key clerks, mail clerks, and information clerks. Their chief duties are to greet guests, assign rooms, and furnish information. Perhaps half of the hotel clerical workers are front office employees. The remainder, mainly women, are employed in a variety of office occupations such as bookkeeper, cashier, telephone operator, and secretary. These occupations are discussed elsewhere in the Hand book. Managers and their assistants are a relatively small group with the highly important task of supervising hotel operations and making them profitable. A general manager is in charge of hotel operations. Some general managers have assistants who are in charge of the front office or help with other phases of hotel management. Some assistants may be responsible for specific operations; for example, food-service managers who operate the dining rooms and other eating facilities, or sales managers responsible for at tracting more business to the hotel. In addition, hotels employ numerous other types of workers who also are found in other industries. Among these are accountants per sonnel workers, musicians and entertainers, rec reation workers, waiters, chefs, and bartenders. Maintenance workers, such as carpenters, electri cians, stationary engineers, plumbers, and painters, also work for hotels. Still other types of workers employed in hotels include detectives, barbers, beauty salon operators, valets, seam stresses, and gardeners. Most of these occupations are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Employment Outlook A rapid increase in employment is likely in this industry through 1975. In addition, about 30,000 workers will be required each year to replace those who retire or die. Many additional openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to positions in other in dustries. Most of the anticipated employment growth in the industry will stem from the need to staff new hotels, motor hotels, and motels being built in urban areas. Limited expansion also will prob ably take place in older hotels that try to meet the challenge of increasing competition for busi ness by modernizing their facilities and expand ing their services. Hotels that are unable to modernize their facilities are likely to experience low occupancy rates and may be forced to reduce overhead costs by eliminating services and the workers who provide them. Thousands of tem porary jobs will continue to be available each year in resort hotels, motels, and other establish ments which are open only part of the year or have more business in some seasons than others. Over the long run, the demand for lodging is expected to increase as the country’s popula tion grows and travel for business and pleasure increases. Jet air travel, which permits business men and others who travel frequently to make a trip to a distant city, complete their business, and return home the same day, may somewhat hamper this increase. Employment is likely to rise most, rapidly in motels, motor hotels, and other businesses catering especially to motorists. This trend has been evident for some time and will continue, as the Federal highway building pro gram further stimulates both automobile travel and the building of motels and motor hotels. In motels, most of the additional employees (not counting new owners) will be housekeeping and food-service workers. Most of the job openings in hotels will con tinue to be for workers who need little specialized training, such as maids, porters, housemen, kitchen helpers, and some dining room employees. 678 These jobs account for a large proportion of all hotel workers, and have high turnover rates. When general employment conditions are good, people in such jobs find it relatively easy to shift to other kinds of work. Also many of the workers are women, who often leave their jobs to take care of their families. In a few of these occupa tions technological changes may limit the number of openings. For example, the increased use of automatic dishwashers, vegetable cutters and peelers, and other mechanical kitchen equipment is likely to reduce the need for kitchen helpers. A number of young people will also be needed every year in front office jobs, to replace clerks who are promoted to managerial posts as well as to fill new jobs in the increasing number of hotels and motels. In addition, there will be openings for clerical workers, although the in creasing use of office machines may adversely affect clerical employment in hotels. Oppor tunities are expected to be favorable for young people who acquire the training and experience necessary to qualify for jobs as cooks and food managers. (Food service workers and office workers are discussed elsewhere in the Hand book.) Earnings and Working Conditions The location, size, and type of hotel affect earnings of hotel workers. Other significant fac tors include the tipping practice for the occupa tion and the degree of unionization. Hotel work ers are not covered by the Fair Labor Standards Act, a Federal statute which sets minimum wages and regulates hours of work. However, more than half the States have their own wage and hour laws that cover hotel workers among others. Salaries of hotel employees in managerial posi tions have an especially wide range, mainly be cause of great differences in duties and responsi bilities. Hotel manager trainees are usually given periodic increases for the first year or two. Ex perienced managers may earn several times as much as beginners; a few, in top jobs, earn $50,000 or more a year. In addition to salary, hotels customarily furnish managers and their families with lodging in the hotel, meals, parking facilities, laundry, and other services. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Since earnings of bellmen are greatly affected by tips, it is difficult to obtain meaningful data on their income. In large luxury and resort hotels, bellmen may earn $100 or more a week (including tips). Data on the earnings of nonsupervisory workers in several hotel occupations are available from a 1963 survey by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in 23 large cities. Hourly rates were generally highest for room clerks and lowest for bellmen, waiters, and waitresses, who usually receive tips which add to their salaries. In practically all occupations, earnings were lowest in southern cities and highest in cities in the West. M en Average H ourly Wages, J u n e 1963 Highest Low est B e llm e n ___________ $1.16 (S a n F r a n c is c o -O a k la n d ) $0.30 (A tla n ta ) R o o m c le r k s ----------- $2.38 (S a n F r a n c is c o -O a k la n d ) $1.82 ( N e w Y o r k C it y a n d S a n F r a n c is c o -O a k la n d ) $1.81 (S a n F r a n c is c o -O a k la n d ) $1.76 (S a n F r a n c is c o -O a k la n d ) $2.27 (S a n F r a n c is c o -O a k la n d ) $1.57 (S a n F r a n c is c o -O a k la n d ) $1.21 (M e m p h is ) E le v a t o r o p e r a to r (p a ssen g er ) H o u s e m e n _________ D is h w a s h e r s ........... .. P a n t r y m e n ............... W a ite r s ------------------ $0.48 (M e m p h is ) $0.54 (M e m p h is ) $0.45 (M e m p h is ) $0.90 ( K a n s a s C it y ) $0.31 (A tla n ta ) W omen R o o m c le r k s ----------E le v a to r o p e r a to r s (p a ssen g er ) C h a m b e r m a id s ___ D is h w a s h e r s .............. P a n t r y w o m e n ------W a itr e s se s ................ .. $2.07 ( N e w Y o r k C i t y ) .............. $1.83 (S a n F r a n c is c o -O a k la n d a n d N e w Y o r k C it y ) $1.70 (S a n F r a n c is c o -O a k la n d ) $1.81 (S a n F r a n c is c o -O a k la n d ) $2.22 (S a n F r a n c is c o -O a k la n d ) $1.50 (S a n F r a n c is c o -O a k la n d ) $1.10 (M e m p h is ) $0.32 (M e m p h is ) $0.51 ( N e w O r lea n s a n d M e m p h is ) $0.51 ( N e w O rlean s) $0.56 (M e m p h is ) $0.22 (A tla n ta ) Housemen and most nonsupervisory employees generally work a 40-hour week, except in the South where the scheduled week is usually 48 hours. For most front office clerks the scheduled workweek ranges from 40 hours—particularly common in the Northeast—to 48 hours in practi cally all southern cities. In a few cities, the work week is less than 40 hours. Since hotels are open round the clock, workers may be employed on any one of three shifts. Staffs are usually smaller on night than on day shifts, and additional compensation may be paid for work during late hours. Managers and house keepers who live in the hotel usually have regular work schedules, although managers may be called on at any time. 679 HOTEL OCCUPATIONS Waiters and waitresses, cooks, pantry workers, dishwashers, and other kitchen workers commonly receive free meals; in a few hotels, maids, elevator operators, and room clerks also receive free meals. More than three-fourths of nonsupervisory em ployees are covered by paid vacation provisions, the duration of the vacation usually being deter mined by length of service. Paid holidays—usu ally 4 to 6 a year—are provided for nearly half of the nonsupervisory hotel employees. The Hotel & Restaurant Employees and Bartenders International Union is the major union in the hotel business. Uniformed personnel, such as bellmen and elevator operators, may be members of the Building Service Employees’ In ternational Union. The degree of unionization, however, differs sharply from area to area. In Boston, Chicago, Detroit, New York, St. Louis, and San Francisco-Oakland, 90 percent or more of nonsupervisory employees, except front desk and office, are in establishments with union con tract agreements. In New Orleans, Atlanta, and Memphis the percentage is 20 or below. Where To G o for More Information Information on careers in hotel work may be obtained from : American Hotel and Motel Association, 221 West 57th St., New York, N.Y. 10019. Additional information on training oppor tunities, and a directory of schools and colleges offering courses in the hotel field may be ob tained by writing to : Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, Statler Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. 14850. Information on housekeeping in hotels, includ ing a list of schools offering courses in house keeping, may be obtained from : National Executive Housekeepers Association, Inc., Business and Professional Building, Gallipolis, Ohio 45631. Information on courses relating to hotel work may be obtained from the local Director of Voca tional Education, the Superintendent of Schools in the local community, or the State Director of Vocational Education in the Department of Edu cation in the State capital. Bellmen and Bell Captains (2d ed. D.O.T. 2 - 22. 11 ; 2 - 22.01) (3d ed. D.O.T. 324.138 and .878) Nature of Work Bellmen, also called bellboys or bellhops, carry the baggage of incoming hotel guests while escort ing them to their rooms. The bellman checks the lights and the supply of towels and soap, and sees that everything is in order in the room. He may suggest the use of various hotel services, in cluding the dining room and the valet service. Bellmen also perform errands for guests and deliver packages. I t is roughly estimated that in 1965, about 20,000 such workers were employed in the Nation’s lodging places. In large hotels, special baggage porters are usually employed to carry baggage for guests who are checking out. In smaller hotels, bellmen carry baggage for out going as well as incoming guests and may also relieve the elevator operator or switchboard op erator. Bell captains are employed in large and many medium-size hotels to supervise the bellmen. They assign work to these employees, keep their time records, and instruct new bellmen in their duties. They may also help guests arrange for transportation by giving them information on train and plane schedules and sending a bag gage porter or a bellman to pick up the trans portation tickets. In addition, they handle com plaints from guests regarding the work of their department, and take care of requests for un usual services. At times, bell captains may also perform the duties of bellmen. Superintendents of service—found in only a few hotels with large service departments— supervise elevator operators and starters, door men, and washroom attendants, as well as bell men and bell captains. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement No specific educational requirements exist for bellman jobs. Graduation from high school, how ever, enhances a bellman’s opportunities for 680 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Since bellmen are in frequent contact with the public it is important that they be neat, tactful, and courteous. A knowledge of the attractions and geography of the local community is an asset. They must also be able to stand all day and to carry heavy baggage. Employment Outlook Bell captain inspects bellmen before they begin their d ay’s work. transfer to front office clerical jobs, and for pro motion. (See statement on Front Office Clerks in this chapter.) In many hotels, bellman jobs are filled by promoting men employed as elevator operators. In the service department of the hotel, the line of promotion is from bellman to bell captain to superintendent of service. Some of the factors which may affect a bellman’s chances for advance ment are a favorable work record showing few complaints by guests, good work habits, and leadership qualities. Since there is only one bell captain’s position in each hotel, it may be a num ber of years before an opening occurs. Oppor tunities for advancement to the position of super intendent of service are even more limited. Nearly a thousand openings for bellmen are expected each year through the mid-1970’s to take care of growth and deaths and retirements. Many additional openings will also be created as bellmen transfer to other occupations. Since a promotion-from-within policy is followed by many hotels in advancing men elevator opera tors to bellman jobs, chances for outsiders to enter year-round jobs as bellmen will be best in hotels which employ women as elevator operators, and in the increasing number of hotels with automatic elevators. Many opportunities for temporary jobs will also arise in resort hotels which are open only part of the year and hire college students and other young men. Many beginners will also be needed in small hotels, to replace experienced bellmen who shift to jobs in luxury hotels where earnings from tips may be higher. Competition among employed bellmen for the relatively few bell captain jobs that will become available in the future is expected to re main keen. Only small growth in employment of bellmen is likely through the mid-1970’s. Some additional jobs will be created as new hotels and motor hotels are built and additions are made to existing hotels. The fast growing motel business will also provide some new jobs; however, because of the type of construction and the emphasis on in formality, relatively few motels employ bellmen. See introductory section to this chapter for information on Earnings and Working Condi tions, Where To Go for More Information, and for additional information on Employment Out look. 681 HOTEL OCCUPATIONS Front Office Clerks (2d ed. D.O.T. 1-.07) (3d ed. D.O.T. 242.368) Nature of Work Hotels employ front office clerks to greet guests, rent rooms, handle mail, and do other work re lated to assigning rooms. It is estimated that about 40,000 such workers were employed in the Nation’s lodging places in 1965. By working “upfront” in hotel lobbies, they deal directly with the public and help build a hotel’s reputation for courteous and efficient service. In small hotels and in motels, a front office clerk (who may be the owner) may not only rent rooms, issue keys, sort mail, and give information, but also do some bookkeeping and act as cashier. On the other hand, large hotels usually employ several front office clerks, who may be assigned to the following different kinds of jobs. Room or desk clerks rent the available rooms. Customarily, they are the first of the front office clerical staff to great guests. In assigning rooms, they must be aware of advance registrations, consider any preferences guests may express, and at the same time try to obtain maximum revenues for the hotel. Boom clerks give information about hotel rates and the types of services avail able, and see that guests fill out registration forms properly. After registration is completed, room clerks signal bellmen to carry guests’ luggage. Reservation clerks acknowledge room reserva tions by mail or telephone, type out registration forms, and notify the room clerk when guests are due to arrive. To keep room assignment records current, rack clerks insert or remove forms indi cating when rooms become occupied or vacant or when they are closed for repairs. They also keep housekeepers, telephone operators, and other personnel informed about changes in room oc cupancy. Other special clerks, such as key, mail, and information clerks are employed in some hotels. In the largest hotels floor supervisors or floor clerks are assigned to each floor to handle the distribution of mail and packages and per form other incidental duties. In all but the very largest hotels, front office clerks may be responsible for a combination of these various duties. They may have other duties Front office clerks register guests and information. give hotel service as well, particularly when they work on late even ing shifts. For example, the night room clerk may perform bookkeeping functions or assist cashiers with their clerical work. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement High school graduates who have some clerical aptitude and the personal characteristics neces sary for dealing with the public may be hired for beginning jobs such as mail, information, or key clerk. Neatness, a courteous and friendly manner, and ease in dealing with people are im portant personal traits for front office clerical workers. Typing and bookkeeping courses given in high school may be helpful, particularly for night-shift work where additional clerical duties are often performed, or for jobs in smaller hotels, 682 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK where the front office clerks often have a variety of duties. Although education beyond high school is generally not required for front office work, hotel employers are increasingly attaching greater importance to college training in selecting per sonnel, who may later be advanced to managerial positions. Front office clerks may improve their opportunities for promotion by taking home study courses, such as those sponsored by the Educa tional Institute of the American Hotel and Motel Association. Inexperienced workers learn about the front office routine mainly through on-the-job experiehce. They usually have a brief initial training period during which their duties are described and they are given information about the hotel, such as the location of rooms and the types of services offered. After new employees begin work ing they receive help when necessary from the as sistant manager or some experienced front office worker. Front office workers usually start as key clerks or mail clerks, or in other fairly routine jobs. Occasionally, employees in other types of hotel work—for example, bellmen or elevator opera tors—may be transferred to such front office jobs. Most hotels have a promotion-from-within policy for front office workers. A typical line of promo tion might be from key or rack clerk to room clerk, to assistant front office manager, and later to front office manager. (See statement on Hotel Managers and Assistants later in this chapter.) Employment Outlook Employment in this occupation will probably increase moderately each year through the mid1970’s. Many openings will result from the need to replace workers who are promoted to higher level jobs or transfer to other occupations. Some new jobs will become available in cities where new hotels will be built or existing ones expanded. In addition, new front office jobs will be created in the hundreds of motels expected to open in the next decade. Women are being hired in a few front office jobs, such as those of mail and information clerk and reservation clerk, but their chances for ad vancement to room clerk jobs and to managerial posts will probably remain limited. Women will find somewhat better opportunities in resort than in commercial hotels. A front office clerk has relatively stable em ployment. Employment in this occupation does not tend to expand or contract as sharply with changes in general economic conditions as em ployment in many other hotel occupations. See the introductory section to this chapter for information on Earnings and Working Condi tions, Where To Go for More Information, and for additional information on Employment Out look. Housekeepers and Assistants (2d ed. D.O.T. 2-25.21, .22) (3d ed. D.O.T. 321.138) Nature of Work Hotel housekeepers are responsible for keeping the hotel clean and attractive. They account for furnishings and supplies; hire, train, and super vise the maids, linen room and laundry workers, housemen, seamstresses, and repairmen; keep em ployee records; and perform other duties which vary with the size and type of the hotel. Those employed in middle-size and small hotels not only supervise the cleaning staffs but may do some of the maids’ work. In large hotels and smaller luxury-type hotels, the duties of executive or head housekeepers are primarily administrative. Besides supervising a staff which may number in the hundreds, they may prepare the budget for the housekeeping department; make regular re ports to the manager on the condition of rooms, needed repairs, and suggested improvements; purchase or assist in purchasing supplies; and have responsibility for interior decorating work. Some executive housekeepers employed by large hotel chains may have special assignments such as reorganizing housekeeping procedures in an established hotel or setting up the housekeeping department in a new or newly acquired hotel. In many hotels, executive housekeepers are as sisted by floor housekeepers who directly super vise the work on one or more floors. Large hotels 683 HOTEL OCCUPATIONS tive Housekeepers Association. In addition, the Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Motel Association also offers housekeeping or iented courses, for class or individual home study. The most helpful courses are those emphasizing housekeeping procedures, personnel management, budget preparation, interior decorating, and the purchase, use, and care of different types of equipment and fabrics. Employment Outlook Executive housekeeper instructs new employees in bedmaking procedures. also may employ assistant executive housekeepers. An estimated 15,000 hotel housekeepers were em ployed in 1965, most of whom were women. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Specialized training in hotel administration, including courses in housekeeping, was available at several colleges in 1964. Some universities offer short summer courses or conduct evening classes in cooperation with the National Execu Several hundred openings for hotel house keepers and their assistants are expected annually through the mid-1970’s. Most openings will re sult from the need to replace workers who retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. How ever, some new positions for housekeepers also will become available in newly built hotels and the growing number of large luxury motels. In established hotels, most openings for housekeepers and their assistants will be filled from within by promotion of assistant housekeepers and maids. However, since only one top job as executive housekeeper exists in each hotel, it is sometimes many years before an opening of this kind oc curs in a given hotel. Experienced hotel house keepers will also find employment opportunities in hospitals, clubs, college dormitories, and a variety of welfare institutions. See introduction to this chapter for information on Earnings and Working Conditions, Where To Go for More Information, and for additional in formation on Employment Outlook. Managers and Assistants (2d ed. D.O.T. 0-71.13 and .15; 0-97.63) (3d ed. D.O.T. 163.118 and 187.118 and .168) Nature of Work Hotel managers have overall responsibility for operating their hotels profitably and at the same time providing maximum comfort for guests. Of the more than 110,000 hotel and motel managers in 1965, about 40,000 were salaried and nearly 70,000 were owner-managers. Within the frame work of policy set by owners, salaried managers direct and coordinate the activities of the front office, kitchen and dining rooms, and the various hotel departments such as housekeeping, account ing, personnel, purchasing, publicity, and mainte nance. They make decisions on room rates, estab lish credit policy, introduce improvements in operations, and have final responsibility for deal ing with many other kinds of problems that arise in operating their hotels. Like other managers of business enterprises, they may also spend con siderable time conferring with business and social groups and participating in community af fairs. 684 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Hotel manager helps guest with a special problem. In small hotels, the manager also may perform much of the front office clerical work. In the smallest hotels and in many motels, the owners— sometimes a husband-and-wife team—do all the work necessary to run the business. The general manager of a large hotel may have several assistants wdio manage one or more de partments and assume general administrative re sponsibility when the manager is absent. Because preparing and serving food is so important in the operation of most large hotels, a special manager is usually in charge of this department. Managers of large hotels also usually employ a special as sistant, known as a sales manager, whose job is to promote maximum use of hotel facilities. Much of the sales manager’s time is spent traveling about the country explaining to various groups the facilities his hotel can offer for meetings, banquets, and conventions. Since large hotel chains often centralize certain activities, such as purchasing supplies and equip ment and planning employee training programs, managers of these hotels may have a more limited number of duties than managers of independently owned hotels. In hotel chains, managers may be assigned on a temporary basis to help or ganize work in a newly acquired hotel, or they may be transferred to established hotels in dif ferent States or in foreign countries. In accordance with the promotion-from-within policy followed by most hotels, individuals who have proven their ability, usually in front office jobs, may be promoted to assistant manager posi tions and eventually to general manager. Although successful hotel experience is gener ally the first consideration in selecting managers, employers increasingly emphasize a college educa tion. Many believe the best educational prepara tion is that provided by the few colleges in the country which offer a specialized 4-year cur riculum in hotel and restaurant administration. Specialized courses in hotel work, available in a few junior colleges, and study courses given by the Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Motel Association are also helpful. In colleges offering a specialized 4-year cur riculum in hotel management, the courses include hotel administration, hotel accounting, economics, food service management and catering, and hotel maintenance engineering. Students are encour aged to spend three summer vacations working in hotel or restaurant jobs—for example, as busboys or bellmen, room clerks, or sometimes as assistant managers. The experience gained in these jobs and the contacts with employers may enable young people to obtain better hotel posi tions after graduation. In addition, students are encouraged to study foreign languages and other subjects of cultural value such as history, phi losophy, and literature. College graduates who have majored in hotel administration usually begin their hotel careers as front office clerks; after acquiring the necessary experience, they may advance to top managerial positions. An increasing number of employers are requiring some experience in food operations. Chances for advancement may be somewhat better in hotel chains than in independent hotels, since persons may be selected to fill vacancies which arise in any hotel in the chain as well as on the central management staff. Some large hotel organizations have established special programs for management trainees who are college graduates or for less highly trained personnel promoted from within. Such programs consist mainly of on-the-job training assignments in which the trainee is rotated among jobs in HOTEL OCCUPATIONS the various hotel departments. In addition, some large hotels provide financial assistance to out standing employees for college study. Employment Outlook Well-qualified young people will find favorable opportunities through the mid-1970’s to obtain entry positions that offer the possibility of pro motion to managerial work. Young men with college degrees in hotel administration will have an advantage in seeking such entry positions and later advancement, particularly if they can handle 685 food management or can qualify as sales man agers. Many openings for management personnel will probably result from the need to fill vacancies resulting from turnover. The number of hotel managers is expected to increase moderately over the long run. New posi tions will arise as additional hotels are built, and as the number of luxury motels expand. See the introductory section of this chapter for information on Earnings and Working Condi tions, Where To Go for More Information, and for additional information on Employment Out look. OCCUPATIONS IN THE INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL INDUSTRY The industrial chemical industry has grown, in just a few decades, into one of the great manu facturing industries of our Nation. An important reason for this growth has been the industry’s huge expenditures for research and development activities which have provided many new and improved products for its customers—mainly other manufacturing industries. A wide variety of industrial chemical products contribute to our everyday needs and comforts, e.g., synthetic fibers are used in clothing and rugs and plastics in dinnerware and furniture. Also, they are essential for the manufacture of missile and space equip ment, rocket propulsion fuels, and for other na tional defense and space materials. In 1964, more than 455,000 wage and salary workers were employed in the industrial chemical industry in a wide range of occupations. Job re quirements varied from graduate college degrees for some scientists and engineers to a few days of on-the-job training for some plant workers. Nature of the Industry The industrial chemical industry is made up of plants which manufacture basic and intermediate organic and inorganic chemicals. These chemi cals are used mainly by other companies in the chemical industry, and by other manufacturing industries as raw materials or as processing agents to make their own products. Industrial chemicals are unlike other chemical products, such as drugs, paints, and fertilizers, which are sold di rectly to the consumer without further processing. Industrial chemical plants make organic chemi cals from raw materials obtained from the remains of prehistoric life such as coal, petro leum, and natural gas, or from living materials such as agricultural and forest products. Some products of organic chemicals such as synthetic fibers (nylon, rayon, and orlon), synthetic rub ber, and plastics are well known. Among those 686 less well known to the public are coal tar crudes, benzene, acetone, and formaldehyde. The princi pal users of organic chemicals include the textile, plastics products, rubber, and food-processing industries. Inorganic chemicals come from nonliving matter, such as salt, sulfur, mineral ores, and limestone. They are basic materials for making, or helping to make, other chemicals as well as finished products, such as steel, glass, paper, and gasoline. In at least one respect, the manufacture of chemicals differs from the manufacture of most other products—the ingredients which are used to make chemicals undergo reactions which produce compounds vastly different in nature and appearance from those of the original raw mate rials. For example, by rearranging and combin ing the molecules of coal, air, and water, the chemists can produce nylon, a product having no similarity to its raw materials. A modem chemical plant is made up of huge towers, tanks, and buildings linked together by a network of pipes. These structures contain the various types of equipment needed to process raw materials into chemical products. Raw materials go through several processing operations such as drying, heating, cooling, mixing, evaporating, and filtering. Between each operation, the mate rials, which may be liquid, solid, or gas, are transported by pipes or conveyors. Throughout these operations, automatic control devices reg ulate the flow of materials, the combination of chemicals, and the temperature, pressure, and time needed for each operation. These control devices make it possible for tons of material to be processed in one continuous operation with very little manual handling of materials. Approximately 2,650 plants in the United States make industrial chemicals. Almost twothirds of the plants have fewer than 50 employees each. However, more than one-half of the in- 687 INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL INDUSTRY Occupations in The Industry Workers with many different levels of skills and education are employed in the plants, offices, and laboratories of industrial chemical firms. More than 3 out of every 5 employees are engaged in processing operations, maintenance duties, or other plant-related activities. A large number of scientists, engineers, and other technical person nel are also employed because of the highly tech nical nature of chemical products and the methods used to produce them. Administrative and pro fessional employees, such as purchasing agents, salesmen, accountants, lawyers, and personnel of ficers, make up another sizable segment of the industry’s work force. In addition, large numbers of clerical workers, such as bookkeepers, stenog raphers, typists, and office machine operators, are employed. About 1 out of every 8 workers in the industrial chemical industry is a woman. Most women in this industry work in clerical jobs, although some work in chemical laboratories as research chem ists or as laboratory technicians and assistants. In a few industrial chemical plants, women are employed as chemical operators or as packers. Production workers inspect sages to insure proper operation of equipment. dustrial chemical workers are employed in very large plants of 500 or more employees each. Chemical plants are usually located on the out skirts of industrial centers. Sometimes plants are built near the sources of raw material; for example, plants which produce chemicals made from petroleum and natural gas are located near the oilfields and refineries of Texas, California, and Louisiana. Although industrial chemical workers are em ployed in.most States, more than 60 percent of the employees and more than half the plants are in the following 10 States; New York, New Jersey, Texas, Tennessee, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia, Michigan, Delaware, and Ohio. 7T8-316 O— 65------45 Plant Occupations. Plant workers, who rep resent more than 3 out of every 5 employees in the industrial chemical industry, can generally be divided into three major occupational groups: Processing workers, who operate the chemical processing equipment; maintenance workers, who maintain, install, and repair machinery, pipes, and equipment; and other plant workers, such as stock clerks, material handlers, and truckdrivers. Process equipment operators and their help ers are the largest occupational group in the industrial chemical industry. Many of these oper ators are highly skilled workers. Chemical oper ators (D.O.T. 558.885 and 559.782) control the various pieces of equipment which convert raw materials into chemical products. Operators are responsible for carrying out instructions given to them by the supervisor in charge. Operators set dials on devices that measure the exact amount of materials to be processed and control temperature, pressure, and flow of materials. They keep a record of operations and report any sign of breakdown of equipment. They may use instruments which measure and test chemicals or they may send OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 688 of the plant; some load and unload materials on trucks, trains, or ships; and other workers keep inventory records of stock and tools. The indus try also employs custodial workers, such as guards, watchmen, and janitors, whose jobs are similar to those in other industries. Technicians calibrate chemical analysis instruments. samples of chemicals to laboratory technicians in the testing laboratory. They may be assisted by chemical operators of less skill, as well as by helpers. Sometimes, chemical operators are clas sified according to the type of equipment they operate, such as filterer, grinder, or mixer. The industry employs many skilled mainte nance workers to prevent interruptions of its highly automated production processes. Main tenance skills are also very important because of the extremes of temperature, pressure, and cor rosion to which pipes, vats, and other plant equipment are subjected. Included among main tenance workers are pipefitters, who lay out, in stall, and repair pipes and pipefitting; mainte nance machinists, who make and repair metal parts for machines and equipment; electricians, who maintain and repair wiring, motors, switches, and other electrical equipment; and instrument repairmen, who install and repair electrical and electronic instruments and control devices. In some chemical plants, the duties of several main tenance jobs may be combined into a single job and performed by one maintenance man. Plant workers who do not operate or maintain equipment perform a variety of other tasks in industrial chemical plants. Some drive trucks and tractors to make deliveries to various parts Scientific and Technical Occupations. The in dustrial chemical industry is one of the Nation s largest employers of scientific and technical per sonnel. About 1 out of every 6 employees in this industry is in some activity requiring scientific, engineering, or technical training. About 40 per cent of these employees work in laboratories, developing new chemical products and new methods of production as well as performing basic research. About one-third are involved in the production of chemicals and in other plant operations. The remaining scientific and tech nical personnel are in analysis and testing work, and in administrative or sales positions requir ing technical background. Chemists and chemical engineers make up the largest proportion of scientific and technical per sonnel in the industrial chemical industry. Many chemists work in research and development laboratories. A large number work in production departments, analyzing and testing chemicals in order to control their quality during process ing. Some chemists are supervisors of plant workers; others are technical salesmen, technical writers, or administrators whose positions re quire technical knowledge. Chemical engineers apply their knowledge of both chemistry and engineering to the design, con struction, operation, and improvement of chemical equipment and plants. They convert processes developed in a laboratory into large-scale pro duction methods, using the most economical manu facturing techniques. Some chemical engineers are employed in production departments and others are in selling, customer service, and writing jobs which require technical knowledge and skill. Other types of engineers are also employed in industrial chemical firms. Mechanical engineers design and lay out power and heating equipment, such as steam turbines. They also build nuclear reactors which are used in research laboratories for the study of chemical reactions. They often supervise the installation, operation, and main tenance of chemical processing equipment. Elec- INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL INDUSTRY Young engineers learn plant designs and operating procedures from exact scale models. trical engineers design and develop electrical and electronic machinery and equipment, such as control devices and instruments, as well as facil ities for generating and distributing electric power. In addition to the large number of such pro fessional personnel, the industry employs many technical assistants such as laboratory techni cians, chemical technicians, draftsmen, and engi neering aids. Laboratory technicians assist chem ists and engineers in research and development work and in production control. They may per form simple routine tests or experiments, or do highly technical testing and analyses of chemical materials, depending on their training and experi ence. Much of the work of laboratory techni cians consists of conducting tests and recording the results—often in the form of simple reports, charts, or graphs—for interpretation by chemists and chemical engineers. Administrative, Clerical, and Related Occupa tions. About 1 out of every 5 employees in the industrial chemical industry is an administrative, clerical, or other white-collar worker. Many high-level administrative and management posi tions are filled by men with training in chemistry or chemical engineering. At the top of the ad 689 ministrative group are the executives who make policy decisions concerning matters of finance, types of products to manufacture, and location of plants. To make such decisions, executives require the help of a large body of specialized personnel in the company. Some of these workers are accountants, purchasing agents, sales rep resentatives, lawyers, and personnel employed in such activities as industrial relations, public relations, transportation, advertising, and market research. Other workers are required to assist these specialized administrative workers. For example, clerical employees keep records on per sonnel, payroll, raw materials, sales, shipments, and plant maintenance. (Detailed discussions of professional, techni cal, mechanical, and other occupations found not only in the industrial chemical industry but in other industries as well are given elsewhere in this Handbook in the sections covering the in dividual occupations. See index for page num bers.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The industrial chemical industry generally hires inexperienced workers for processing and maintenance jobs and trains them on the job. Companies in the industry prefer to hire young workers who are high school graduates. In many plants, a new worker is sent to a labor pool from which he is assigned to such jobs as filling barrels and moving materials. After sev eral months, he may be transferred to one of the processing departments when a vacancy occurs. As he gains experience and know-how, he moves to more skilled jobs in his department. Thus, he may advance from laborer to chemical operator helper, to assistant chemical operator, and then to skilled chemical operator. Skilled processing workers are rarely recruited from other plants. Most maintenance jobs are filled by men who are trained on the job in the plant. Experienced men are sometimes hired when no qualified train ees are available. Many industrial chemical com panies have training programs to meet the needs of their maintenance shops. These programs may last from a few months to several years; they include mainly on-the-job training and some classroom instruction related to the trainees’ par ticular work. Instrument repair trainees often 690 learn how to assemble and repair instruments in the factories which manufacture them. Many companies encourage skilled maintenance work ers as well as trainees to take courses related to their jobs in local vocational schools and techni cal institutes, or to enroll in correspondence courses. Upon the successful completion of these courses, some companies reimburse the workers for part or all of the tuition. A bachelor’s degree in engineering, chemistry, or one of the other sciences is the minimum educa tional requirement for entry into scientific and engineering jobs in the industrial chemical in dustry. For jobs in research laboratories, appli cants with advanced degrees are generally pre ferred. Some companies have formal training programs for young college graduates with engi neering or scientific backgrounds. These men work for brief periods in the various divi sions of the plant to gain a broad knowledge of chemical manufacturing operations before be ing assigned to a particular department. Other firms immediately assign junior chemists or engi neers to a specific activity such as research, process development, production, or sales. Technicians in the industrial chemical indus try qualify for their jobs in many different ways. Companies prefer to hire men and women who have obtained a formal education in technical institutes or junior colleges. However, most workers become technicians through on-the-job training and experience. Generally, industrial chemical firms select young men from their labor pool and give them training while they work at one of the technician jobs. Sometimes, tech nicians may be sent to a technical institute for training, usually at company expense. Students who have not completed all requirements for a college degree, especially those who have received some education in mathematics, science, or engi neering, are often employed in technician jobs. Laboratory technicians begin their work in routine jobs as assistants and advance to jobs of greater responsibility after they have acquired additional experience and have shown their abil ity to work without close supervision. Inexperi enced draftsmen usually begin as copyists or tracers. With additional experience and training, they may advance to more skilled and responsible jobs as draftsmen. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Laboratory technician tests chemicals used to make textile fibers. Administrative positions frequently are filled by men and women who have college degrees in business administration, marketing, accounting, economics, statistics, industrial relations, or other specialized fields. Some companies have ad vanced training programs in which they give their new employees additional training in their chosen specialties. Clerks, bookkeepers, stenographers, and typists in industrial chemical firms generally have had commercial courses in high school or business school. Although the qualifications for and the duties of administrative, sales, clerical, and related occupations in this industry are similar to those in other industries, a knowledge of chem istry is often helpful. This is especially true of those sales jobs in which it is necessary to give technical assistance to customers. Employment Outlook The growing industrial chemical industry is expected to provide many thousands of job oppor tunities for new workers each year through the mid-1970’s. Some of these openings will result from the expected rapid expansion of industrial 691 INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL INDUSTRY chemical output. Large numbers of job open ings for new workers will be created by retire ments, deaths, or transfers to jobs in other fields of work. Retirements and deaths alone probably will provide, on the average, more than 10,000 openings for new workers each year during the decade ahead. The industrial chemical industry’s emphasis on research and development is expected to continue to stimulate the growth of this dynamic industry, which has far outstripped most other major indus tries in the development of new products. Some of these products, such as plastics and synthetic fibers, have not only created completely new markets, but also have competed successfully in markets previ ously dominated by wood, natural textile fibers, and metals. They are expected to continue to make inroads into these markets. A plentiful supply of the raw materials used in chemical manufac turing is also favorable to the industry’s future growth. The continued growth of the Nation’s space program will stimulate expansion in the industrial chemical industry during the years ahead. Large quantities of industrial chemicals are used for the liquid and solid propellants needed to power rocket engines and for other aspects of spacecraft, such as structural materials, lubricants and fluids, aux iliary power systems, and systems to support life in the space environment. The atomic energy field is another area of economic activity whose continued growth, in civilian as well as military applications, will favorably affect the demand for industrial chemicals. These chemicals are used in various aspects of atomic energy work, such as the processing and purification of uranium ores and the development and operation of nuclear reactors. Although industrial chemical production has grown rapidly in the past 15 years, employment has increased at a much slower rate. Since 1950, the number of industrial chemical workers has grown by about 50 percent in contrast with out put, which has increased more than 300 percent. (See chart 35.) The major reason for this differ ence is the industry’s emphasis on improved methods of making chemicals. The widespread use of automatic processing and control equip ment has enabled the industry to increase its production considerably with a relatively small CHART 35 PRO D U CTIO N H A S BEEN I N C R E A S I N G MUCH FASTER T HAN E M P L O Y M E N T I N THE I N D U S T R I A L C H E M I C A L S I N D U S T R Y Index (1950=100) addition of labor. Increases in output per worker are expected to continue in the years ahead, as new plants with the latest equipment are con structed and more modern devices are installed in the older plants. Some occupational groups in the industry are expected to grow faster than others. For example, the number of professional and administrative jobs is expected to increase more rapidly than the number of plant (processing and maintenance) workers, continuing recent trends in this indus try. Continued emphasis on research and develop ment and greater complexity of products and processes are expected to increase the need for chemists, engineers, technicians, and other tech nical personnel. Most of the demand for additional plant work ers will be for skilled maintenance workers, such as instrument repairmen, pipefitters, electricians, and maintenance machinists, because of the increasing use of instrumentation and automatic equipment in processing operations. Process equipment operators will continue to be the largest occupational group in the industry, 692 although employment of these workers is not expected to increase as much as employment of maintenance workers. Earnings and Working Conditions Production workers in the industrial chemical industry are among the higher paid factory workers. Average earnings are relatively high because of the large proportion of workers in skilled occupations. In mid-1965, production workers in plants producing basic inorganic and organic chemicals had average earnings of $135.66 a week or $3.23 an hour and those in plants pro ducing plastics materials and synthetic rubber, resins, and fibers had average earnings of $129.81 a week or $2.85 an hour. In comparison, average earnings in mid-1965 for production workers in manufacturing industries as a whole were $108.21 a week or $2.62 an hour. Entry salaries for inexperienced chemists and chemical engineers in the chemical industry are among the highest in American industry, accord ing to a 1964 survey conducted by the American Chemical Society. In this industry, the average median starting salary was $575 a month for chemists with a bachelor’s degree and $620 a month for chemical engineers with a bachelor’s degree. Chemists and chemical engineers with graduate degrees received higher starting salaries. Earn ings data for other engineers and scientists in this industry are not available. Paid vacations are universal in this industry and are generally based on length of service. Workers generally receive a 1-week vacation after 1 year of employment, 2 weeks after 3 years, and 3 weeks after 10 years. A majority of the workers are covered by insurance plans. These plans include life, sick ness, accident, hospitalization, and surgical insur ance. Practically all plants have pension plans. Many chemical workers are employed in plants that operate around the clock—three shifts a day, 7 days a week. Owing to the widespread industry practice of rotating shifts, processing workers can expect to work the second or third OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK shift at one time or another. Nearly all workers receive extra pay for shift work, about 10 cents more an hour for the second shift, and about 15 cents more an hour for the third or night shift. Very few maintenance workers are employed on these shifts. Work in the industry has little seasonal variation and regular workers have yearround jobs. With the exception of work performed by laborers and material handlers, most industrial chemical jobs require little physical effort. Much of the plant work involves tending, inspecting, repairing, or maintaining machinery and equip ment, since most of the process operations are controlled automatically or semiautomatically. Some workers climb stairs and ladders to con siderable heights in the course of their duties. Other jobs are performed out of doors in all kinds of weather. In some plants, workers may be exposed to dust, disagreeable odors, or high temperatures. Chemical companies, however, have reduced the discomforts arising from these conditions by installing ventilating or air-conditioning systems. Safety measures, such as protective clothing and eye glasses, warning signs, showers and eye baths near dangerous work stations, and first-aid sta tions, have also reduced hazards. These meas ures have helped to make the injury-frequency rate (number of disabling injuries for each mil lion man-hours worked) in the industrial chemical industry less than half that of all manufactur ing industries. Most production workers in the industrial chemical industry are members of labor unions. The leading unions are the International Chemi cal Workers Union; Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers International Union; and District 50, United Mine Workers of America (Ind.). Where To G o for More Information American Chemical Society, 1155 16th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Manufacturing Chemists’ Association, Inc., 1825 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. OCCUPATIONS IN THE INSURANCE BUSINESS Insurance is a multibillion dollar business which employs more people than such great in dustries as automobile or aircraft manufacturing, banking, or hotels. It offers many employment opportunities both for young men and women who are just out of high school or college and for experienced workers. There are almost 1,600 life insurance com panies and approximately 3,500 property and liability (sometimes called property and casualty) insurance companies. They conduct their busi nesses in main offices, commonly called “home” offices, and in thousands of local sales offices or agencies in cities and towns throughout the country. Local offices may be branches operated by the insurance companies whose policies they sell, or they may be operated by independent agents and brokers. Nature of the Business Insurance policies are classified into two broad categories: life insurance, and property and li ability insurance. Practically all companies specialize in one of these types. However, com panies in both fields may sell health insurance. Life insurance companies sell policies which provide not only basic life insurance protection, but also several other kinds of protection. Under some policies, for example, policyholders receive an income when they reach retirement age or if they become disabled and stop working; insurance under other policies may help to meet the costs of educating children when they reach college age, or may give extra financial protection while the children are young. Life insurance companies may also sell accident and health insurance, which assists policyholders in meeting medical expenses and sometimes provides them with other kinds of benefits when they are injured or ill. Policies sold by property and liability insurance companies provide financial protection against loss or damage to the policyholders’ property and protects the insured when they are responsible for injuries to other people or damage to other people’s property. This insurance field includes protection against hazards such as fire, theft, and windstorm, as well as workmen’s compensation and other liability insurance. Many policies sold by life insurance and by property and liability insurance companies are written to cover groups of people—anywhere from a few individuals to many thousands. Group policies are usually issued to employers for the benefit of their employees. They most often pro vide retirement income, life insurance, or health insurance and they have gained great popularity in recent years. Group policies providing life in surance, for example, protected more than 50 mil lion workers in 1963, and the number of policies in force was almost three times the number 10 years earlier. Insurance Workers The insurance business provided jobs for almost 1.2 million people in 1965. The great majority were clerical and sales workers. (See chart 36.) Clerical occupations afforded jobs for more than 4 out of 5 women employed in the business; sales work occupied more than half of the men. Salesmen are a key group of employees in in surance companies. About one-third of all in surance employees are sales workers—chiefly agents, brokers, and others who sell policies di rectly to individuals and business firms. Agents and brokers are usually responsible for finding their own customers or “prospects,” and for see ing that each policy they sell provides the special kind of protection required by the policyholder. (A statement on Insurance Agents and Brokers is included in the chapter on Sales Occupations.) The various types of insurance policies offered by companies in both the life and property-liabil ity fields must be carefully planned so that they 694 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK CHART 36 AMONG THE 1.2 MILLION WORKERS IN INSURANCE BUSINESS-1965^ a b o u t on e-h alf are in cle rical o c c u p a tio n s a n d on e-third are sales workers 0 10 Percent 20 30 40 50 Clerical Sales M anagerial Professional All Other are financially sound and conform to legal re quirements. Also, after a policy is sold, the in surance company must keep records of premiums paid and services rendered and must deal with claims made by the policyholder and benefits paid to him. Most of this planning, recordkeep ing, and other behind-the-scenes work is done in home offices and requires the services of company officials and others in managerial positions, pro fessional and technical employees, and clerical workers. About 1 out of 10 insurance workers is in a managerial position. Managers who are in charge of local offices, through which most insurance policies are sold, often spent part of their time in sales work. Others, who work in home offices, are company officials or administrators in charge of policy issuance, accounting, investments, loans, and other important office work. The large-scale investment activities of many insurance companies make financial administration a particularly im portant area of employment. Working closely with the managerial person nel in insurance companies are specialists who study insurance risks and coverage problems, analyze investment possibilities, prepare financial reports, and do other professional work. Pro fessional workers, employed mainly at home offices, represent about 1 out of 25 insurance workers. Included among them is the actuary, whose job is unique to the insurance field. Ac tuaries make statistical studies relating to various kinds of risks and, on the basis of these studies, determine how large the premium on each type of policy should be. The work of most other professional employees in insurance com panies is fundamentally the same as in other in dustries. Accountants, for example, deal with in surance company records and financial problems relating to premiums, investments, payments to policyholders, and other aspects of the business. Engineers work on problems connected with policies covering industrial work accidents, dam age to industrial plants and machinery, and other technical matters. Lawyers interpret the regula tions which apply to insurance company opera tions, handle the settlement of some kinds of in surance claims, and do other legal work. In vestment analysts evaluate real estate mortgages and new issues of bonds and other securities, analyze current investments held by their com panies, and make recommendations on when to hold, buy, or sell. As more electronic computers are installed to handle office records, increasing numbers of programers are being employed to help process data on this equipment. Keeping track of millions of policies involves a vast amount of paperwork and occupies the time of hundreds of thousands of clerical work ers. Almost half of all insurance company em ployees are in jobs classified as clerical—a much larger proportion than in most other industries. The majority are secretaries, stenographers, and typists, or operators of bookkeeping and other kinds of office machines, or general office clerks. They do much the same kind of work in insurance companies as in other types of business enter prises. Other clerks, employed mostly in home offices, have specialized jobs found only in the insurance business. Among them are typists known as 'policywriters (D.O.T. 203.588) who copy onto policy forms, from approved insurance 695 INSURANCE BUSINESS In addition to the four major groups of em ployment discussed above, insurance companies employ thousands of mechanics and repairmen, janitors, and others who do maintenance and custodial work similar to that required in other large business organizations. These employees account for about 1 out of 40 workers in the in surance business. Additional information about many of these occupations is contained in this Handbook in the chapter on Clerical and Related Occupations and the statements on Actuaries, Accountants, Engi neers, Lawyers, Programers, and Maintenance Electricians. Where Employed C ourtesy of the P re sid e n t’s C o m m ittee on E q u a l E m p lo y m en t O p p o rtu n itie s Insurance companies employ clerical workers in many kinds of office jobs. applications, the name and address of the policy holder, amount of the policy, premium rate, and other information. Policy change clerks (D.O.T. 219.388) enter changes in beneficiaries and cover age on policies, in accordance with the instruc tions given by agents. Insurance checkers (D.O.T. 219.488) check the information entered on policies by other clerical workers, to be certain that the work is accurate. Other workers who are classified as clerical occupy positions of considerable responsibility which require extensive knowledge of one or more phases of the insurance business. This group includes claim adjusters (D.O.T. 241.168) who decide whether insurance claims are covered by the customer’s insurance policy, see that any payment due the policyholder is made on each claim, and, when necessary, investigate the cir cumstances which gave rise to the claim. Claim adjusters for life insurance companies hold home office positions; those in the property and liability business are generally field personnel. Relatively large numbers of insurance workers are employed in Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and New York, where the home offices of some of the largest insurance companies are lo cated. Many insurance workers also are em ployed in agencies, brokerage firms, and other sales offices in cities and towns in every section of the country. Almost all sales personnel work out of local offices, whereas the majority of pro fessional and clerical workers are employed in company home offices. More than half of all insurance workers are employed by life insurance companies and agencies; included in this group are some large companies with thousands of employees. Com panies which deal mainly in property and liability insurance, although more numerous than the life insurance companies, generally have fewer em ployees. Many local agencies and sales offices are also small, regardless of the type of insurance they handle. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Insurance offers job opportunities for people with very different educational backgrounds and talents. Some positions require a great deal of managerial and administrative experience and know-how; others require college training in fields such as mathematics, accounting, and en gineering; but still others involve only routine duties which can be learned on the job. Graduation from high school or business school is regarded as adequate preparation for most 696 beginning clerical positions. Courses in subjects such as typing, business arithmetic, and the opera tion of office machines may be valuable. These special skills are often required for jobs in in surance company offices, and this kind of training provides a background of information which helps employees advance to more responsible posi tions. For a position as a claim adjuster, some legal training in a college or university may also be helpful. Engineering, accounting, and other professional positions in insurance companies usually require the same kinds of college training as they do in other business firms. College-trained people are also preferred for managerial positions, many of which are filled by promotion from within. In professional and managerial work requiring con tact with the public, as well as in sales work and claim adjusting, it is important that the employee have a pleasant disposition and outgoing per sonality and be able to inspire confidence in his ability to protect the customer’s interests. Insurance companies and associations of com panies and agents offer several kinds of training programs to help employees prepare for better jobs. The Insurance Institute of America, for example, furnishes study guides relating to the fundamentals of property and casualty insurance, and awards certificates to those who pass the In stitute’s examinations. Some national, State, and local insurance associations offer home study training or evening courses in various aspects of the insurance business. Other courses, especially designed to help clerical employees gain a better understanding of life insurance and life insurance company operations, deal with the organization and operation of both home and field offices. They are given under the auspices of the Life Office Management Association which also provides pro grams for the development of supervisory and managerial personnel. Employment Outlook Over the 1965-75 decade, employment in the insurance industry is expected to rise moderately. New jobs to be filled, plus openings that occur as employees retire or stop working for other reasons, are expected to total more than 65,000 a year. Turnover is particularly high in this in OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK dustry because of the many young women in clerical jobs who work for only a few years and then leave to care for their families. Still other openings will have to be filled as insurance work ers leave their jobs for employment in other in dustries. The expected increase in employment will result mainly from a rapidly increasing volume of in surance business. With population growth, there will be more individuals to purchase life insurance as well as insurance which provides retirement in come and funds for their children’s education. Others who do not presently have insurance may become policyholders; for example, advances in medical science, are making life insurance avail able to persons who were formerly rejected as poor insurance risks. The need for property and liability insurance will also increase as a rising standard of living enables more individuals and families to own one or more automobiles, buy homes, and make other major purchases which are usually insured. In the business world also, more insurance of this kind will be required as new plants are built, new equipment is installed, and more goods are shipped throughout the country and the world. Furthermore, as the coverage of State workmen’s compensation laws is broadened, more employers may need work men’s compensation insurance. Insurance employment will probably rise at a somewhat slower rate than the volume of busi ness handled by insurance companies. I t is be coming more common for companies to issue “multiple-line” policies which cover a variety of insurance risks formerly covered in separate policies, thus reducing somewhat the workload of sales personnel in local offices and clerical em ployees in home offices. Also likely to bring about changes in insurance company employment is the probability that more companies will install elec tronic computers and other equipment to process some of the routine paperwork now done by clerks. The total number of insurance company clerical workers is likely to continue to rise, but the pro portion of routine jobs will probably decline, while that of jobs requiring special training—in cluding machine operator positions for the new mechanical equipment—will increase. Insurance workers have better prospects of regular employment than workers in many other 697 INSURANCE BUSINESS industries. Most businessmen regard property and liability insurance as a necessity both during economic recession and in boom periods, and pri vate individuals also attempt to retain as much basic financial protection as possible, even when their incomes decline. Earnings and Working Conditions According to a 1963-64 survey of nonsupervisory employees of insurance companies, banks, and related businesses, there was a wide range in salaries among the individuals in the companies surveyed. Some clerical workers in beginning, routine jobs earned less than $40 a week, while some experienced employees in more responsible positions earned up to four times that amount. Women employed in beginning jobs as junior file clerks averaged $56 a wTeek and office girls $58.50. Switchboard operators, a fairly large group of women employees, averaged $75.50 a week, and secretaries—the largest and generally the highest paid of any women’s group covered in the survey —$92. The average for women accounting clerks ranged from $67 to $86, depending on experience and skill. The earnings of men in office occupa tions averaged somewhat higher than those of women doing similar work. To some extent, these differences in salary levels may be due to differences in the specific job duties of the employees involved and in the firms for which they worked. Salary levels in different parts of the country also vary; earnings are gen erally lowest in southern cities and highest in the western metropolitan areas. (See chapter on Clerical and Related Occupations for additional information about the earnings of workers in other office occupations found in insurance com panies.) Starting salaries for professional workers are generally comparable with those for similar posi tions in other industries and businesses. I t is not uncommon for specialists with several years of ex perience in the insurance business to receive an nual salaries of well over $10,000. The earnings of agents and brokers, unlike those of salaried professional workers, depend on commissions from the policies they sell. (See the statement on Insurance Agents and Brokers.) Except for agents and brokers, who must some times extend their working hours to meet the con venience of prospective clients, insurance com pany employees usually work between 35 and 40 hours a week. The number of paid holidays is somewhat greater than in many other industries. Two-week paid vacations are generally granted employees after 1 year of service; in most com panies, vacations are extended to 3 weeks after 15 years and, in some, to 4 weeks after 20 years. Practically all insurance company workers share in group plans providing hospitalization, life, sickness and accident, and surgical insurance, and retirement pensions. Where To G o for More Information General information on employment oppor tunities may be obtained from the personnel de partments of major insurance companies or from insurance agencies in local communities. Other information on careers in the insurance field is available from : Institute of Life Insurance, 277 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, N.Y. 10038. For additional information on the salaries of clerical workers in finance industries, including insurance, see: W ages and A rea s, R e la te d U n ite d B e n e fits , P a r t I I : S ta te s and R e g io n a l (BLS Bulletin 1385-82, June 1965). ent of Documents, Washington, Price 70 cents. M e tr o p o lita n S u m m a rie s , Superintend D.C. 20402. OCCUPATIONS IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY There is hardly a product in daily use that has not been made from steel, or processed by ma chinery made of steel. The Nation’s high and ris ing standard of living, its industrial might, and its military strength depend largely on its ability to produce great quantities of high quality steel. In 1964, United States steelmakers produced about 127 million tons of steel—more than onefourth of the world’s output of this vital metal. The iron and steel industry is one of the Na tion’s largest employers. About 625,000 wage and salary workers were on the payrolls of the industry’s more than 700 plants in 1964. Em ployees work in a broad range of jobs requiring a wide variety of skills—from unskilled to tech nical and professional jobs. Many of these jobs are found only in iron and steel making or finish ing. The iron and steel industry, as discussed in this chapter, consists of blast furnaces, steelworks, and rolling and finishing mills, including mills engaged in rolling and finishing steel products from purchased sheets, strips, bars, rods, and other materials. The production of iron and steel consists of a closely related series of production processes. First, iron ore is converted to molten iron in blast furnaces. The molten iron is poured into “hot metal cars” and either transported di rectly to the steelmaking furnace, or cast into “pigs” (iron in rough bar form) for use by foundries or by steel mills that do not produce their own iron. (See chart 37.) Molten iron or pig iron is then converted into steel in various types of steelmaking furnaces, including open hearth, basic oxygen, and electric furnaces, and Bessemer converters. The steel is then rolled into basic products, such as plates, sheets, strips, rods, bars, rails, and structural shapes. Many plants carry the manufacturing processes beyond the primary rolling stage to produce finished products such as tinplate, pipe, and wire prod 698 ucts. (This chapter does not describe the mining of coal, iron ore, limestone, and other raw mate rials used to make steel, or the casting, stamping, forging, machining, or fabrication of steel. These activities are not considered to be in the iron and steel industry. Employment opportunities in foundry, forging, and machining occupation are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Because iron and steel are produced in huge quantities, the industry uses gigantic processing equipment. A modern blast furnace may be as high as a 23-story building (about 230 feet tall). A single blast furnace may produce more than 3,000 tons of molten iron in a 24-hour period. The several different types of furnaces used to convert iron into steel are also immense. For example, open-hearth furnaces, used to make most steel, may be 70 feet long and 20 feet wide or even larger. Limestone and scrap metal are loaded into open-hearth furnaces by enormous electically operated “charging” machines. After the initial charge is heated, molten iron is poured into open hearths from huge crane-operated ladles. Six to eight hours later, molten steel is “tapped,” or emptied from the furnace into other giant ladles, which are moved by a crane to a pouring platform where the steel is “teemed,” or poured, into ingot molds. These ingots are later rolled into finished and semifinished products. The rolling equipment which forms steel into various shapes is hundreds of feet long. A hot sheet mill, for example, is more than 2,000 feet long. Some of the steel cylinders, or “rolls,” used in this equipment may weigh 40 or 50 tons. Steel companies differ in the number of opera tions they perform. Many of them, known as integrated companies, produce their own coke from coal, reduce ore to pig iron, make steel, and form the steel into products by rolling and other finishing methods. Such companies account for the bulk of total steel production and employ 699 IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY most of the industry’s workers. Another group of companies make various types of steel from steel scrap and pig iron purchased from other companies. A third group rolls and finishes pur chased raw steel. A fourth type makes only pig iron to be sold to small steel plants and foundries. Most of the basic products made by steel mills are shipped to the plants of other industries, where they are made into thousands of different products. Some steel mill products, however, such as rails, pipes, and nails, are produced in their final form at the mills. The leading steel con suming industries are automobile, construction and building materials, machinery and machine tools, containers, and household appliances. Steel sheets are made into such things as auto mobile bodies, household appliances, and metal furniture. Steel bars are used to make parts for automobiles and machinery, and to reinforce con crete in building and highway construction. Steel plates become parts of ships, bridges, heavy machinery, railroad cars, and storage tanks. Strip steel is used in the manufacture of such items as pots and pans, automobile body parts, razor blades, and toys. Tin coated steel, known as “tin plate,” is used primarily to make “tin” cans. Individual plants in this industry typically employ a large number of workers. About twothirds of all the industry’s employees work in plants which have more than 2,500 wage and sal ary workers. A few plants have more than 20,000 employees. However, many plants employ fewer than 100 workers, particularly those plants which make highly specialized steel products. Iron and steel producing plants are located mainly in the northern and eastern parts of the United States. There are large plants in Chicago, 111.; Gary and Hammond, Ind.; Cleveland and Youngstown, Ohio; Buffalo, N.Y.; and Pitts burgh, Johnstown, Bethlehem, and Morrisville, Pa. The Nation’s largest steel plant is located at Sparrows Point, near Baltimore, Md. Much of the steelmaking in the South is in the vicinity of Birmingham, Ala. Important steelmaking facili ties are also located in the Far West. About 7 out of 10 of the industry’s workers are employed in five States—Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and New York. Nearly 3 out of 10 are in Pennsylvania. Occupations in the Industry Workers in the iron and steel industry hold more than 1,000 different types of jobs. Some workers are directly engaged in making iron and steel and converting it into semifinished and finished products. Others take care of the vast amount of machinery and equipment used in the industry, operate cranes and other equipment which move raw materials and steel products about the plants, or perform other kinds of work. In addition, many workers are needed to do the clerical, sales, professional, technical, admin istrative, and supervisory work connected with the operation of steelmaking plants. More than four-fifths of all employees in the iron and steel industry in 1964 were production and maintenance workers. These workers were directly concerned with the production and finish ing of iron and steel, the maintenance of plant equipment, and movement of materials within and among plant departments. The remaining employees were employed in clerical, sales, pro fessional, technical, administrative, research, man agerial, and supervisory occupations. Men comprise 96 percent of all employees in the iron and steel industry, and an even higher proportion of the industry’s production workers since much of the production work is strenuous. However, the physical labor involved in steel making has been reduced through mechanization. About two-thirds of all the women employed in the industry work in clerical and other office jobs, including research and other technical work. Women employed in production departments are in jobs such as assorter and inspector. Processing Occupations. The majority of the workers in the iron and steel industry are em ployed in the many processing operations involved in converting iron ore into steel and then into semi finished and finished steel products. To provide a better understanding of the types of jobs in this industry, brief descriptions of the major steel making and finishing operations and of the more important occupations connected with them are given below. Blast furnaces. The blast furnace is used to extract molten iron from iron ore. Alternate layers of iron ore, coke, and limestone are fed into the top of the furnace. Hot air, blown in 700 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK CHART 37 THE STEELMAKING PROCESSES BLAST FURNACE SCRAP R A W M A T E R IA LS IR O N and SCRAP BASIC O XYG EN FURNACE ELECTRIC FURNACE STEEL T O R O L L IN G M ILLS BILLETS PLATE, SHEET AND STRIP STRUCTURAL STEEL AND RAILS AUTOMOBILES • SHIPS OIL REFINERY TANKS • REFRIGERATORS TIN CANS • FARM MACHINERY WASHING MACHINES • STOVES WELDED PIPES AND TUBES RAILROAD CARS ROOFING, RURAL MAIL BOXES RAILS • BRIDGES BUILDINGS SHIPS MACHINERY ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION TOWERS RAILROAD CARS AUTOMOBILE PARTS MACHINERY • HARDWARE, TOOLS WIRE • SPRINGS • FENCE • NAILS NUTS AND BOLTS • AIRCRAFT OIL, GAS AND WATER LINES BOILERS IN POWER PLANTS AND SHIPS BICYCLES IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY from the bottom of the furnace, rises through the mass of material and causes combustion. The gases formed by the burning of the coke com bine with and remove the oxygen from the ore. Molten iron trickles down through the charge and collects in a pool at the bottom of the fur nace. At the same time, the intense heat melts the limestone which combines with silica and other impurities in the iron ore and coke and forms molten “slag,” a useful byproduct. This, too, trickles down through the charge and floats on top of the heavier molten iron. The slag and molten iron ore are separately tapped or “cast” from the blast furnace. A blast furnace operates continuously, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, unless it has to be shut down for repairs or for other reasons. Molten iron is removed every 4 or 5 hours; slag is re moved more frequently. The charging of iron ore, coke, and limestone into the furnace is a con tinuous operation. The raw materials used in blast furnaces are stored in a stock house below furnace level. Here stockhouse men or stockhouse larrymen (D.O.T. 919.883) load traveling stock or larry cars with raw materials from storage bins. They weigh all raw materials in accordance with a prearranged schedule, which depends upon the kind of hot metal desired. The loaded stock cars are emptied into waiting “skip cars,” which carry the mate rials up tracks to the top of the blast furnace where they are automatically dumped. Other stockhouse men or skipmen (D.O.T. 921.883), sta tioned on the ground below, control the skip cars through electric and pneumatic controls. Stove tenders (D.O.T. 512.782) and their assistants op erate huge, bricklined stoves which heat air for the blast furnace. They regulate valves to con trol the heating cycle of the stoves and regulate the flow of heated air to the furnace. The men who are responsible for the quantity and quality of iron produced are called bloioers (D.O.T. 519.132). They direct the operation of one or more blast furnaces, including loading and tapping the furnace, and regulating the air blast and furnace heat. Blowers carefully check the metal produced, periodically sending samples of the molten iron and slag to the lab oratory where quality tests are made and the results reported to the blower. Keepers (D.O.T. 701 502.884), under the direction of the blower, are responsible for tapping the furnace. They direct their helpers and cindermen or sluggers (D.O.T. 519.887) in lining (with sand) the troughs and runners through which the molten iron and slag are run off into waiting cars. In plants where both iron and steel are made, most of the molten iron is carried in “hot metal cars” or in giant ladles to the steelmaking furnaces. If the iron is to be shipped or stored, it is carried to a casting machine where it is cast into pigs (bars). Steel furnaces. The second major step in steel making is to convert the iron into steel. This is done in several types of furnaces: Open hearth; basic oxygen; electric; and Bessemer converter. Open-hearth steel, which accounts for more than three-fourths of all steel produced in the United States, is produced by adding molten pig iron to previously charged and heated steel scrap and limestone and melting the mixture in fur naces. It is possible to make from about 125 to more than 500 tons of steel per load or “heat” in most furnaces. Some furnaces, however, have capacities in excess of 600 tons. The open-hearth process is so named because the saucer-shaped hearth, or floor of the furnace, is exposed to the sweep of the flames which melt the steel. In recent years, most of the open-hearth steelmaking facil ities have utilized oxygen in the refining operation to speed up the process. A melter (D.O.T. 512.132) is in charge of one or more open-hearth furnaces and is respon sible for the quality and quantity of the steel produced. Each heat of steel is made to specifi cations, which depend upon the end use for the steel. The melter makes the steel to the desired specifications by varying the proportions of lime stone, iron ore, scrap steel, and molten pig iron in the furnace, and by adding small amounts of other materials, such as carbon, manganese, silicon, copper, or aluminum. He supervises three grades of helpers—first (D.O.T. 512.782), second (D.O.T. 502.884), and third (D.O.T. 519.887). These helpers prepare the furnaces for the heat, regulate furnace temperatures, take samples of molten steel for laboratory tests, direct the adding of various alloying materials, and tap the molten steel from the furnace into a ladle. One first helper is responsible for each open-hearth furnace. 702 The charging machine operator (D.O.T. 512.883) runs an electrically controlled machine with a long steel arm which picks up, one by one, long steel boxes full of limestone, scrap, and other materials. The machine pushes each box through the open furnace doors, turns it upside down to discharge its contents, and then withdraws it. The hot metal craneman (D.O.T. 921.883) oper ates a large overhead crane, that picks up ladles of molten iron and pours the contents into the open-hearth furnaces. When the heat of steel is ready to be tapped, the furnace crew knocks out a plug at the back of the furnace with a “jet tapper” (small explo sive charge which is fired into the plug) which allows the molten metal to flow into a ladle. The slag, which floats to the top of the ladle, overflows into a smaller ladle, called a slag pot. The molten steel is then poured from the ladle into ingot molds (hollow cast iron forms). A ladle craneman (D.O.T. 921.883) operates an overhead crane which picks up the ladle and moves it over a long row of ingot molds resting on flat-bottom cars. The steel pourer (D.O.T. 514.884) operates a stopper on the bottom of the ladle to let the steel flow into the molds. As soon as the steel in the molds has solidified sufficiently, an ingot stripper (D.O.T. 921.883), Melter’s helper inserts jet tapper into open hearth furnace tap hole. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK operating an overhead crane, removes the molds from the still hot blocks of steel, called ingots, leaving the stripped ingots standing to cool on the “ingot buggies” (four-wheel carts running on rails). About an eighth of all steel produced in 1964 was made in basic-oxygen furnaces, and the proportion is expected to increase rapidly in the 1965-75 decade. Basic oxygen furnaces can make steel faster than any other type of furnace cur rently in use. Some basic oxygen furnaces can produce more than 6,000 tons of steel in a 24hour period. In this steelmaking process, oxygen is “blown” into the furnace through vertical pipes, or “lances,” after it has been loaded with steel scrap, pig iron, and molten iron. Limestone and other slag forming materials are added to remove impurities from the steel. The use of oxygen speeds the steelmaking process because it is blown directly into the molten metal forcing a faster chemical reaction and a higher bath tem perature. Electric furnaces accounted for about a tenth of all steel produced in 1964. In electric furnaces, steelmaking can be controlled very closely. Con sequently, such furnaces are used to produce high quality and high alloy steel, such as tool and stainless steels. Steel made by the Bessemer process accounts for less than 1 percent of the total amount of steel produced in this country each year, having declined steadily over the past half century. Rolling and finishing. The three principal methods of shaping metal in steel plants are roll ing, casting, and forging. About three-fourths of all steel products are shaped by the rolling process. In this method, heated steel ingots are squeezed longer and flatter between two cylinders or “rolls.” Before ingots of steel are rolled, they are heated to the temperature specified by the plant’s metallurgist. The heating is done in large furnaces, called “soaking pits,” located in the plant floor. A heater (D.O.T. 613.782) controls the soaking pit operation. He directs helpers in heating the ingots to the specified temperature and, with the help of control equipment, deter mines when they are ready for rolling. A soaking pit craneman (D.O.T. 921.883) operates an over head crane, by means of electrical controls, to lift the stripped ingots from an ingot car and IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY place them into the soaking pit. When the ingots are sufficiently “soaked” with heat, the heater opens the furnace doors and the craneman removes the ingots and places them on ingot bug gies, which carry them to the rolling mills. Here, the ingots are rolled into semifinished shapes— blooms, slabs, or billets. Blooms are generally more than 6 inches wide and 6 inches thick. Slabs are much wider than blooms. Billets are the smallest of these three shapes. The rolling of blooms illustrates the semi finishing process. In the blooming mill, as in other rolling mills, the ingot moves along on a roller conveyor to a machine which resembles a giant clothes wringer. A “two-high” blooming mill has two heavy grooved rolls which revolve in opposite directions. The rolls grip the approach ing ingot and pull it between them, squeezing it thinner and longer. When the ingot has made a “pass” through the rolls, the rolls are revolved in the opposite direction, and the ingot is fed back through them. Throughout the rolling oper ation the ingot is periodically turned 90 degrees by mechanical devices called “manipulators,” and passed between the rolls again, so that all sides are rolled. Guides, located on each side of the roll table, properly position the ingot for entry into the rolls. This operation is repeated until the ingot is reduced to a bloom of the desired size. The bloom is then ready to be cut to specified lengths. A blooming mill roller (D.O.T. 613.782), the man in charge of the mill, works in a glassenclosed control booth, or “pulpit,” located above and directly over the roller line. His duties, which appear to consist ^principally of moving levers and pushing buttons, look relatively simple. However, the quality of the product and the speed with which the ingot is rolled depend upon his skill. The roller regulates the opening be tween the rolls after each pass. Long experi ence and a knowledge of steel characteristics are required for a worker to become a roller. A manipulator operator (D.O.T. 613.782) sits in the pulpit beside the roller and coordinates his controls with those of the roller. Upon leaving the rolling mill, the red-hot bloom moves along a roller conveyor to a place where a shearman (D.O.T. 615.782) controls a T78-316 0 — 65...... 4 6 703 heavy, hydraulically operated shear which cuts the steel into desired lengths. In a blooming mill with automatic (electronic) process controls, a rolling mill attendant is given a card which has been punched with a series of holes. The holes represent coded information and directions as to how the ingot is to be rolled. The attendant inserts the card into a card “reader,” then presses a button that starts the rolling sequence. The information in punchedcard form governs the setting of the roll opening, the speed of the rolls, the number of passes to be made, and the number of times the ingot must be turned. When the automatic process is used, the roller’s function is shifted from operating the rolling controls to directing and coordinating the entire rolling process. This consists of heat ing, rolling, and shearing. One of the latest developments in steel shaping is the continuous casting process. In this process molten steel is poured into a water-cooled mold lo cated at the top of a tower. As the mold is filled, the steel solidifies along the bottom and lower sides. The mold bottom is then withdrawn and the slab starts its descent through the tower. As While his helper knocks off scale, speed operator (one type of roller) controls continuous butt weld pipe mill. 704 the slab ribbon emerges from the mold, additional molten steel is continuously added at the top. Continuing downward, the slab passes through a spray chamber where it is further cooled by a water spray to solidify the still liquid core. Pinch rolls control the slab’s descent and support its weight. Finally the slab is cut into lengths while hanging vertically from the rolls. After the steel is rolled into semifinished shapes—blooms, slabs, or billets—most of it is put through “finishing” operations. For example, steel slabs may be reduced and shaped into plates and sheets. Even after additional rolling, some steels must be worked further. Some rods, for instance, are reduced to wire by drawing. Wire can be further processed into wire rope, nails, fencing, or other end products. Much sheet steel is further reduced by cold-rolling, and then it may be run through galvanizing or tinplating lines. Bars, skelp (a thick, narrow sheet), and plate can be formed into pipe of widely varying diameters. Equipment operator, inspector, and assorter, are among the major occupations in finishing operations; women are frequently employed in these jobs. An important occupation in wire making is the wire drawer (D.O.T. 614.782). This worker pulls the pointed end of a steel rod through a die (a block of hard steel or sintered carbide with a tapered hole in it) . The rod end is then attached to a reel which, while revolving, pulls the rest of the rod through the die. As the rod passes through the die it is made thinner and longer and becomes wire, which is automatically coiled around the revolving reel. If extensive reduction of the rod is required, it is passed through a series of dies, each die reducing the diameter of the wire slightly. Pipe, both welded and seamless, is also an important steel mill product. In making welded pipe, the flat steel is fed into a machine which rolls it into tube shape; then the edges of the pipe are fused by continuous welding. Seamless pipe and tubing are formed from a solid billet of steel, called a tube round. In the seamless operation, the piercer-machine oper ator (D.O.T. 613.885) passes a preheated tube round between two barrel-shaped rolls. The revolving rolls spin the tube round and force one OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK end against a piercing plug or “mandrel.” The combined rolling action and the pressure of the rolls tend to make the steel draw apart providing space for the mandrel to enter. The mandrel smooths the inside walls and makes the diameter of the hole uniform. Tinplate is another important steel product. To make tinplate, thin sheets of steel are fed continuously through an electrolytic bath where a coat of tin is deposited on the steel. Maintenance, Transportation, and Plant Service Occupations. Large numbers of workers are required in steel plants to support processing activities. Some maintain and repair machinery and equipment, and others operate the equipment which provides power, steam, and water. Other groups of workers move material and supplies and perform a variety of service operations. In the machine shops, machinists and machine tool operators make and repair metal parts for machinery or equipment. Diemakers use machine tools to form dies, such as those used in wire drawing units. Roll turners (D.O.T. 613.780) use lathes, grinders, and other machine tools to finish steel rolls to desired shapes and sizes for use in the rolling mills. Millwrights in this industry maintain mechani cal equipment. They overhaul machinery, and repair and replace defective parts. Electricians install electric wiring and fixtures and “hook up” electrically operated equipment. Electrical repair men (motor inspectors) keep wiring, motors, switches, and electrical equipment in good oper ating condition and make repairs when electrical equipment breaks down. Electronic repairmen install, repair, and ad just the increasing number of electric devices and systems used in steel manufacturing plants. Typically, this equipment includes communica tion systems, such as public address systems; closed-circuit television installations; electronic computing and data recording systems; and measuring, processing, and control devices, such as X-ray measuring or inspection equipment. Bricklayers repair and rebuild the brickwork in furnaces, soaking pits, and coke ovens, as well as mill buildings and offices. Pipefitters lay out, in stall, and repair piping that is used to carry the large amount of water, gas, steam, oil, air, oxygen, IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY and acetylene used in the steelmaking process. Boilermakers test, repair, and rebuild heating units, storage tanks, stationary boilers, and con densers. Locomotive engineers and other train crew members operate diesel or electric trains used to transport materials and products in the vast yards of iron and steel plants. Welders operate welding equipment to join metal parts in repairing and rebuilding plant machinery and in fabricating steel products. Skilled workers run the various boilers, turbines, and switchboards in the powerplants which provide the large amounts of electric power needed in steelmaking. Other types of maintenance and service work ers found in steel plants include carpenters, oil ers, painters, instrument repairmen, scale repair men, loaders, riggers, greasers, janitors, and guards. Many laborers are employed to load and unload materials and do a variety of cleanup operations. Administrative, Clerical, and Technical Occupa tions. Professional, technical, administrative, clerical, and sales workers accounted for nearly one-fifth of the industry’s total employment in 1964. Of these, the majority were clerical workers, such as secretaries, stenographers, typists, accounting clerks, and general office clerks. Engineers, scientists, and technicians made up a substantial proportion of the industry’s “whitecollar” employment. Several thousand of these workers were engaged in research and develop ment to improve existing iron and steel products and processes, and to develop new products and processes. For example, these workers are now developing and improving alloy steels that are highly resistant to heat, extremely strong, and relatively light in weight. The technical specialists in iron and steel plants also include mechanical engineers whose principal work is the design, construction, and operation of mill machinery and material han dling equipment. Many mechanical engineers work in operating units where their jobs include, for example, determination of roll size and con tour, rolling pressures, and operating speeds. Others are responsible for plant and equipment maintenance. Metallurgists and metallurgical engineers work in laboratories and in production 705 departments where they have the important task of testing and controlling the quality of the steel during its manufacture. They also develop and improve the industry’s products and processes through research. Civil engineers are engaged in the layout, construction, and maintenance of steel plants and the equipment used for heat, light, and transportation. Electrical engineers design, lay out, and supervise the operation of electrical generating and distribution facilities that pro vide the power essential in modern steel mill operation. These engineers are concerned also with the operation of electrical machinery and electrical and electronic control equipment. Chemists work in the laboratories, making chemical analyses of steel and raw materials used in steel manufacture. Laboratory technicians do routine testing and assist chemists and engi neers. Draftsmen prepare working plans and detailed drawings required in plant construction and maintenance. Among the employees in administrative, mana gerial, and supervisory occupations were office managers, personnel workers, purchasing agents, plant managers, and industrial engineers. Work ing with these personnel were several thousand professional workers, other than scientists and engineers. By far the largest group of these pro fessional workers were accountants, but there were also many nurses, lawyers, economists, statisticians, mathematicians, librarians, and so cial workers. In addition, the industry employed several thousand workers in sales positions. (Detailed discussions of professional, technical, mechanical, and other occupations found in the iron and steel industry as well as in many other industries are given elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement New workers in processing operations are usu ally hired at the unskilled level, as laborers. Openings in higher rated jobs are usually filled by promoting workers from lower grade jobs. Factors considered when selecting workers for promotion are: Ability to do the job, physical fitness, and length of service with the company. Training for processing occupations is done almost entirely on the job. Workers move to operations requiring progressively greater skill as they acquire experience and “know-how.” A 706 craneman, for example, is first taught how to operate relatively simple cranes, and then he advances through several steps to cranes much more difficult to run, such as the hot-metal crane. In selecting workers for processing jobs, steel companies generally give preference to high school graduates. To help them advance in their work, many workers take part-time courses in subjects such as chemistry, physics, and metallurgy. In some cases, this training is provided by the steel companies and may be given within the plant. Other workers take evening courses in high schools, trade schools, or universities in their communities or enroll in correspondence courses. Workers in the various operating units usually advance along fairly well-defined lines of promo tion within their department. Examples of pos sible lines of advancement in the various oper ating units follow. To become a blast furnace blower, a worker generally starts as a laborer, advancing to cinderman or slagger, keeper’s helper, keeper, blower’s helper, and, finally, to blower. In the open-hearth departments, a man may begin by doing general cleanup work around the furnace and then gen erally advance to third helper, second helper, first helper, and, eventually, to melter. A possible line of job advancement for a roller in a finishing mill might be pitman, roll hand, manipulator, rougher, and finish roller. Workers can be trained for skilled jobs, such as blower, melter, and roller (which are among the highest rated steelmaking jobs), in a minimum of 4 or 5 years, but usually wait a much longer time before openings occur. Most companies conduct some type of appren ticeship program to meet the needs of their main tenance shops. There are apprentice training programs for more than 20 different crafts in the steel industry. The apprenticeship programs for maintenance workers usually are of 3 or 4 years duration and consist mainly of shop training in various aspects of the particular jobs. In addi tion, classroom instruction in related technical subjects is usually given, either in the plant or in local vocational schools. Steelmaking companies have different quali fications for apprentice applicants. Generally, employers require applicants to be high school OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK or vocational school graduates. In most cases, the minimum age is 18 years; sometimes an upper age limit is specified. Some companies give apti tude and other types of tests to applicants to determine their suitability for the trades. Ap prentices are generally chosen from among qualified young workers already employed in the plant. The following occupations are among those most often included in apprentice training programs in iron and steel plants: Blacksmith, boilermaker, bricklayer, coremaker, carpenter, electrician, instrument repairman, lead burner, machinist, molder, painter, patternmaker, pipe fitter, rigger, roll turner, sheet metal worker, tool and die maker, and welder. Applicants for jobs as helpers to skilled main tenance workers are usually given aptitude tests. Helpers receive on-the-job training and may be promoted to jobs requiring greater skill as openings occur. However, vacancies in these higher grades may not occur for several years, depending on the rate of turnover. The minimum requirement for engineering and scientific jobs is usually a bachelor’s degree with an appropriate major. Practically all the larger companies have formal training programs for college-trained technical workers in which the trainees work for brief periods in various oper ating and maintenance divisions to get a broad picture of steelmaking operations before they are assigned to a particular department. In other companies, the newly hired scientist or engineer is assigned directly to a specific research, oper ating, maintenance, administrative, or sales unit. Engineering graduates are frequently hired for sales work and many of the executives in the industry have engineering backgrounds. Engi neering graduates as well as graduates of business administration and liberal arts colleges are employed for jobs in sales, accounting, and labormanagement relations, as well as in managerial positions. Completion of a business course in high school, junior college, or business school is usually pre ferred for entry into most of the office occupa tions. Office jobs requiring special knowledge of the steel industry are generally filled by pro moting personnel already employed in the industry. 707 IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY Employment Outlook The iron and steel industry will hire many thousands of workers during the 1965-75 decade to replace experienced workers who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone in this large industry should provide about 14,000 job openings annually—13,000 for men and 1,000 for women. However, be cause of the expected increase in output per worker total employment in the industry is expected to decline below the 1965 level of 660,000 by 1975, even assuming relatively full employment na tionally and the high levels of economic activity needed to achieve this goal. The extent of the anticipated employment decline cannot be de termined at this time, because it is far too early to evaluate the labor-saving effects of many of the technological developments being introduced in the iron and steel industry. Despite the decline in total employment an ticipated over the long run, employment in some occupations, or occupational groups, is expected to increase. Among white-collar workers, for example, employment of engineers, chemists, physicists, mathematicians, laboratory aids, and other technical personnel will increase, because of the industry's expanding research and develop ment programs. Job opportunities for electronic technicians, electronic computer programers, and other personnel trained in the preparation of data for use in these machines also are expected to in crease. Among skilled plant personnel, mainte nance workers (particularly instrument repair men) are expected to be needed in greater numbers, because of the increasingly complex machinery, instruments, and other equipment used. In con trast, the number of less skilled processing jobs is expected to decline. A substantial increase in the production of iron and steel is expected during the decade ahead. The growing population and rising levels of personal disposable income will result in greater demand for products that require large amounts of steel, such as automobiles, houses, household appliances, and highways. New ma chinery will also be needed to produce the grow ing quantity of goods needed to feed, clothe, and otherwise satisfy the requirements of an expanding population. Continued increases in the efficiency of office and production operations in the iron and steel industry are expected in the decade ahead. The efficiency of office operations, for example, will be improved by the growing use of electronic data-processing and communications equipment. The time needed to produce steel will be reduced by the increasing use of high pressure in blast furnaces; basic oxygen furnaces; oxygen in open-hearth and electric furnaces; and continu ous casting equipment. The trend toward more automatic production operations and the greater use of instruments to control the quality of steel will also result in increased operating efficiency. The use of automatic production techniques is growing in rolling mills, in tin coating processes, and in heating and controlling furnaces; and these techniques are being improved and extended to other operations. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of production workers in iron and steelmaking establishments are among the highest in manufacturing. In mid-1965, their earnings averaged $144.75 a week, or $3.43 an hour. This compares with average earnings of $107.01 weekly, or $2.61 an hour, for all production workers in manufacturing establishments. Basic (standard) hourly wage (including an 18.5-cent-per-hour accumulated cost-of-living al lowance) rates for nine selected processing occu pations in the United States Steel Corp., the largest single steel company, are shown in the following tabulation: B la st furnaces Keeper __ ___ __ _ ____ Stockhouse man _ _ ___ __ Cinderman________ ____________ Job class i 14 10 6 A p p ro x im a te basic hourly ra tes 2 $3. 26 2. 97 2. 68 Steelmaking Charging-machine operator, open hearth _ _____ ___________ ____ Ingot stripper, open h e a r th ______ Helper, third, open h e a r th _____ 16 12 6 3. 41 3. 12 2. 68 26 13 5 4. 14 3. 19 2. 60 Rolling and finishing m ills Roller, blooming mill ____ __ Manipulator, blooming mill___ ____ Assorters, tin plate___________ _ . 1 A n a r r a n g e m e n t o f jo b s in to a series o f c a te g o r ie s r a te d a c c o r d in g to s k ill, e x p e r ie n c e , tr a in in g , a n d o th e r fa c to r s, t o s e t w a g e ra tes. 2 T h e s e r a te s a re fro m t h e w a g e a g r e e m e n t b e tw e e n th e c o m p a n y a n d t h e U n it e d S te e lw o r k e r s o f A m e r ic a , in e ffe c t in S e p te m b e r 1965. 708 Basic hourly wage rates for skilled processing jobs ranged from about $3.04 to $4.58; for semiskilled jobs, from approximately $2.60 to $2.97; and for unskilled jobs, from $2.39 to about $2.53. (The individual worker’s rate depends on his particular job classification.) These rates were repre sentative of those for processing jobs throughout the industry and were guaranteed minimum for those workers who were paid on the incentive (piece rate) basis. Since about two-thirds of the industry’s production workers were paid on an incentive basis, a majority of such workers gener ally earned more than the basic hourly wage rate. In addition to the above rates, steelworkers receive premium pay for overtime work and for work on Sundays and holidays. Agreements between most steel companies and the United Steelworkers of America include pro visions for various fringe benefits, such as vaca tion pay, retirement pensions, and unemployment benefits. Most workers receive vacation pay rang ing from 1 to 4 weeks depending on length of service. In addition, the top 50 percent of the workers, ranked on the basis of seniority, re ceive 13-week vacations (including regular vaca tion time) every 5 years. Professional and execu tive personnel in a few companies receive similar benefits. Workers may retire after 30 years of service, regardless of age. Retiring workers are eligible for a company-paid pension, in addition to other retirement benefits for which they may be eligible. Employees having 2 years or more of service are eligible to receive supplemental unem ployment benefits for up to 52 weeks. Other impor OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tant provisions include a $100 monthly disability pension provided by the companies, and accident and sickness, hospitalization, surgical, and life insurance benefits financed by the companies. Working conditions depend upon the particu lar plant department in which the worker is employed. Maintenance shops generally are clean and cool. Rolling mills, however, are generally hot and noisy. Some plants are developing methods to reduce job discomfort. For example, the use of remote controls enables employees to work outside the immediate vicinity of process ing operations. In other instances, the cabs in which the men work, wdiile operating mechanical equipment, are often air conditioned. Some of the workers near blast and steel furnaces are exposed to considerable heat. Because certain processes are operated continuously, some workers are on night shifts or work on weekends. The iron and steel industry is a leader in the development of safety programs for workers, emphasizing the use of protective clothing and devices on machines to prevent accidents. In 1964, steel plants had an average injury fre quency rate (injuries per million hours of work) that was about a third of the rate for all manu facturing. Most plant workers in the iron and steel in dustry are members of the United Steelworkers of America. Where To G o for More Information American Iron and Steel Institute, 150 East 42d St., New York, N.Y. 10017. MOTOR VEHICLE AND EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS Few products have had as great an impact on iveryday life as the automobiles, trucks, buses, and other vehicles manufactured by the motor vehicle and motor vehicle equipment industry (automobile industry). Four out of five families owned automobiles in 1964, and over 85 million passenger cars, trucks, and buses traveled the Nation’s streets and highways. In addition, the widespread use of motor vehicles has made signifi cant contributions to the Nation’s economy by help ing to create new industries and develop existing ones. Many businesses, including automotive re pair shops, gasoline service stations, and truck and bus transportation facilities have been created as a result of the motor vehicle. Moreover, the auto mobile industry is a major consumer of many basic commodities such as steel, rubber, and plate glass. To manufacture the more than 9 million motor vehicles (mainly automobiles) produced in 1964, the automobile industry employed more than threequarters of a million employees. Like other large industries, the automobile industry offers employ ment to men and women with widely different backgrounds of education and skill. Require ments for jobs vary from the college degrees necessary for engineers and other professional and technical personnel, to the few hours of on-the-job training necessary for some other oc cupations, such as assembler, materials handler, and custodial employee. The largest number of employees work in factory (plant) occupations. Plant occupations range from the skilled tool and die maker, millwright, and electrician, to those requiring little skill, such as machine tender, assembler, materials handler, and custodial worker. A great number of automotive employ ees also work in office and administrative jobs as clerks, business machine operators, stenog raphers, purchasing agents, and personnel assist ants. Nature and Location of the Industry This industry’s ability to produce millions of complex motor vehicles is due mainly to mass production of standardized parts and assembly line manufacturing methods. Thousands of iden tical parts are produced by employees whose jobs are divided into a limited number of opera tions on high-speed machinery. These massproduced parts are then put together by other employees to form the completed vehicle. As a result, new cars can be driven off assembly lines at the rate of more than one a minute. The automobile industry in 1964 consisted of approximately 2,300 plants that manufactured parts and assembled these parts into cars, trucks, buses, and special-purpose vehicles such as ambu lances, fire engines, and taxicabs. The plants ranged in size from huge assembly plants employ ing many thousands of workers, to parts plants employing a small number of workers. About 80 percent of the industry’s workers are employed in establishments with 1,000 or more employees. Assembly line workers guide a front end into position. 709 710 Hundreds of companies supply the parts for new vehicles and also produce the replacement parts necessary to keep the millions of vehicles already on the road in operation. These firms often specialize in producing individual parts— for instance, brakes, axles, and transmissions. About 60 percent of the automobile industry’s workers are employed in these manufacturing plants. There are only a small number of com panies producing the complete vehicles. About 90 percent of the automobile industry’s workers are employed in 10 States. Michigan alone accounts for about 45 percent of the indus try's employment; Ohio, Indiana, and New York account for another 25 percent. The six other States with large concentrations of motor vehicle manufacturing employment are Wisconsin, Cali fornia, Missouri, Illinois, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. In Michigan, the Detroit metropolitan area is the center of the industry. About 1 out of every 4 of the Nation’s automobile workers is employed within its industrial area, which includes Dear born and Pontiac. Several other cities, especially Flint, Lansing, and Saginaw, employ large num bers of automobile workers. The Great Lakes region has many other impor tant centers; Cleveland, Lorain, Toledo, and Cin cinnati, Ohio; Indianapolis and Fort Wayne, In d .; Chicago, 111.; Buffalo, N.Y.; and Mil waukee and Kenosha, Wis. Much of the automobile manufacturing on the East Coast is centered in the New York-North eastern New Jersey-Philadelphia industrial area in such localities as Newark, Paterson, Linden, and New Brunswick, N.J.; and New York, N.Y. The Los Angeles industrial area is the leading automobile manufacturing center in the Pacific Coast region. The East Bay area is another automobile manufacturing center in California. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK and testing often precede the actual production of each year’s model. Stylists constantly strive to improve the appearance of the automobile. They work closely with engineers and other technical personnel concerned with improving mechanical operation, design, and safety. The stylists’ creative designs are transferred to blue prints, from which skilled modelmakers make clay, wood, and plastic models of the new auto mobile. From these models, refinements in styl ing and design of the new car are developed. In order to mass-produce the car, master dies based on the finally accepted model are made. Companies that produce parts work closely with the automobile manufacturers on questions of designing, engineering, and testing. Problems of production methods, costs, and scheduling also are wrnrked out long before the actual manufac turing process begins. Production of Motor Vehicle Parts. After the design of the new model automobile is developed, automobile parts plants begin production of the various components of the car. Because parts are made by many different firms, rigid quality control is maintained so that the parts fit prop erly on the final assembly line and the safety of the automobile is ensured. Motor vehicle parts are made of many different materials. Although most parts are made from steel, other metals such as aluminum, copper, and How Motor Vehicles A re Made Automobiles and other motor vehicles are pro duced in three steps: Preliminary designing and engineering; production of motor vehicle parts and subassemblies; and final assembly of parts into completed vehicles. Preliminary Designing and Engineering. Ap proximately 2 to 4 years of designing, planning, Automobile stylist sketches body designs. MOTOR VEHICLE AND EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURING zinc also are used. Other parts are made from plastic, rubber, fabric, or glass. Metal parts for motor vehicles are shaped in several ways depending upon the purpose for which the part is to be used, the size of the part, and the type of metal used. The principal methods of shaping metal are casting, forging, stamping or pressing, and machining. Most metal parts are produced by foundry workers, forge shop workers, operators of stamping or pressing ma chines, and machining workers. Castings are made in foundries where molten metal is poured into molds and allowed to cool and harden into the desired shape. Bulky parts, such as engine blocks, generally are made by the casting process. In the forging process, glowing hot metal is shaped by huge hammers and presses. This method of shaping metal produces parts capable of withstanding great stress. Forgings are, therefore, used to make such parts as axles and wheel spindles. Large sections of the motor vehicle are formed from sheet steel which is shaped by huge elec tronically controlled presses. Smaller parts are also stamped or pressed out of sheet steel or aluminum. Cast or forged parts often undergo further processing, usually machining, before they are ready for assembly. Machining is the metalworking process gener ally best adapted for the production of parts to precise sizes. It is a process of cutting or chipping away excess metal from a part or a piece of metal by the use of power-driven machine tools. Among the more common types of machine tools are lathes, boring machines, drill presses, grinding machines, milling machines, and gear cutters. The automobile industry has taken the lead in trying to develop continuous automatic produc tion for many machining operations. This ap proach to production depends on a variety of instruments to direct and control manufacturing processes. In applying automation to machining processes, automobile manufacturers have linked automatic machine tools to perform various op erations. Less labor is required because the parts or pieces being machined are not handled manu ally. For example, in an automated engine plant, a rough engine block goes through hundreds of 711 different cutting, drilling, and grinding opera tions with the use of little or no manual labor. The engine block is moved into and out of load stations mechanically, machined automatically by a battery of machine tools, and transferred by conveyors to the next machining operation. Much of the inspection is done automatically. The machine tools, the conveyors, and the inspec tion equipment often are controlled by electronic, hydraulic, or air control mechanisms. Workers tend the automated lines of machine tools by watching the control panels for interruptions of the machines’ normal functioning. The production of parts does not entirely con sist of metalworking operations: Body parts are made rustproof and attractive by painting and baking them in ovens lined with infrared lights; and upholstery for the car interior is cut, sewn, and installed. Throughout the production of parts, numerous inspections are made so that the quality of the assembled vehicles will meet established stand ards. Assembling the Final Product. The last stage of motor vehicle manufacturing takes place on the final assembly line. Final assembly is the process of putting together in sequence the in dividual parts and the subassemblies, with the completed vehicle rolling off the end of the line. Overhead wires and pipes feed electric power and air to nut tighteners, welding equipment, and other tools used by workers on the assembly line. A conveyor carries the motor vehicle forward while men at work stations attach the necessary parts and subassemblies in proper sequence. Generally, large and heavy subassemblies, such as the engine and the body, are lowered by hoists into position on the chassis as it comes down the line. The finishing accessories, such as bumpers, hubcaps, and floor mats, are added near the end of the line. Finally, gasoline is pumped into the fuel tank, and the new motor vehicle is driven off the line. The headlights and wheels are then alined and the finished car is inspected before it leaves the factory. As the chassis move down the assembly line, “banks” of material located in aisles along the line are continually fed to the assemblers in ac cordance with a careful system of scheduling 712 arranged by the production control department. Behind the movement of the parts and subas semblies to the assembly line is the work of the materials control men who, months before, co ordinated the movement of material from outside suppliers with a planned production schedule. The sequence of the models to be built may be transmitted to the various stations along the line by either teletype or telautograph. The information on color and on the special equip ment desired in each car is obtained from car orders placed by automobile dealers. By this scheduling program, cars of different colors and types follow each other down the assembly line— for example, a light blue sedan may be followed by a beige station wagon. Automobile Manufacturing Occupations The automobile industry’s 875,000 employees in 1965 worked in hundreds of occupations. Semi skilled plant workers such as assemblers, inspec tors, and materials handlers made up about onehalf of all employees. An additional quarter were Operator places wheel weights to achieve correct wheel balance. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK employed as foremen, mechanics and repairmen, machinists, tool and die makers, and in other skilled occupations. Clerical employees made up about a tenth of the total. The remaining workers were employed in professional, technical, sales, and managerial occupations, and as unskilled workers and guards. About 90 percent of all the automobile indus try’s employees are men. Of the women employed in the industry, about half are in production jobs in which the work is not physically strenuous, such as assemblers, inspectors, machine operators, and sewers and stitchers; the rest are in clerical and other office jobs, including research and technical work. The duties and training requirements of some of the important occupations are described briefly below. (Detailed discussions of professional, technical, mechanical, and other occupations found in the automobile industry, as well as in many other industries, are given elsewhere in this Handbook, in the sections covering individual occupations.) Professional and Technical Occupations. The modern automobile is a product of the research, design, and development work of thousands of engineers, chemists, metallurgists, physicists, and other scientists and engineers, as well as mathe maticians, draftsmen, and other professional and technical personnel employed by the automobile companies. About 18,000 scientists and engineers were employed in the automobile industry in early 1963. Engineers make up the largest group of professional and technical workers in the auto mobile industry. Automobile companies hire engineers specializing in mechanical, electrical, industrial, and other fields. For example, the mechanical engineer seeks ways of improving the engine, transmission, or other parts of the auto mobile through research and development and better design. The electrical engineer works on the design of electrical parts, such as ignition systems, voltage regulators, and generators. The industrial engineer concentrates on the layout of plant equipment, improved processes, and produc tion scheduling. The industry also employs civil, chemical, and ceramic engineers, and metal lurgists. MOTOR VEHICLE AND EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURING About 40 percent of the scientists and engi neers are principally engaged in research and development. Others may supervise technical production jobs; for example, the metallurgist may supervise the melting operations in the pre cision casting and forging departments, and the chemist may head the testing and analytical laboratory. The industry also employs many thousands of technicians, such as draftsmen, engineering aids, and laboratory assistants, to assist professional engineers and scientists. Administrative, Clerical, and Related Occupa tions. Many types of employees are necessary in the automobile industry to perform a great vari ety of administrative functions. These include executives who determine how many vehicles to produce, what styles to make, what prices to charge, which parts the company should produce and which parts it should buy, and where it is best to locate plants. Other administrative per sonnel are those, such as personnel manager and purchasing agent, who direct individual depart ments or special phases of operations. Among those assisting the administrators are accountants, lawyers, market analysts, economists, statisticians, and industrial relations experts. This large in dustry also has many supervisory personnel in charge of specific groups of office or plant employees. A large staff of clerical workers also is em ployed, including secretaries, stenographers, bookkeepers, clerks and typists, key punch oper ators, and business machine operators. A large proportion of these are women. Plant Occupations. The largest proportion of employees in the automobile industry—about three-fourths—are in factory jobs and are directly concerned with production operations. Most plant employees make automobile parts, assemble them into the complete vehicles, and put the finishing touches on them. Other plant employees service and maintain .the vast amount of machinery and equipment needed for automobile manufacturing. After the stylists, engineers, and draftsmen have planned and designed the new model car, the production process gets underway. First, the parts must be made. Parts are principally metal and are shaped by a variety of metalforming 713 processes which require workers in a number of metalworking occupations. For example, doors, fenders, and hoods are stamped out by huge presses, cylinder blocks are cast in foundries, axles are forged in forge shops, and pistons are ground by machine tools. Machining occupations. Automobile parts are manufactured to precise dimensions by machin ing workers. One of the largest metalworking occupations in the automobile industry is that of machine tool operator. These workers operate power-driven machines which hold both the piece of metal to be cut and an instrument, or “tool,” that cuts, shapes, drills, or grinds the metal. The job titles of these employees depend on the type of machine tool they operate, for example, engine lathe operator, drill press operator, and milling machine operator. Among the most highly skilled machining work ers are the tool and die makers. Toolmakers make the jigs, fixtures, and other accessories that hold the metal being machined. Diemakers construct the dies that are used in stamping, pressing, forging, and other metalforming operations. Tool and die makers read blueprints, set up and operate ma chine tools, use precision-measuring instruments, Machine tool operator controls machine boring cylinders in engine blocks. 714 and make shop computations. They work to closer tolerances (more exact dimensions) and do more precision handwork than most other ma chining workers. Foundry occupations. Castings for automobile parts are produced by pouring metal into molds where it cools and hardens in the shape of the molds. Patternmakers make a wood or metal pattern in the shape of the final casting desired. Coremakers shape the bodies of sand, or “cores,” which are placed inside molds in order to form hollow spaces needed in castings. Machine molders make the sand mold into which the metal is poured. Many other workers in the foundries are in less skilled occupations. Melters operate electric fur naces and cupolas used to melt metal for castings. The actual pouring is done by metal pourers. After the casting cools, the shakeout men remove it from the mold. Other workers clean the cast ings and remove the excess metal. Forging occupations. Some automobile parts which must withstand great stress are shaped by forging hammers and presses in the forge shop. Hammermen operate drop hammers which pound metal into various shapes between closed dies. The hammermen are assisted by heaters who heat the metal stock in a furnace to prepare it for forging and then pass the stock to the hammer men. Other forge shop workers are engaged in cleaning, finishing, heat treating, or inspecting forgings. Other metalworking occupations. The auto mobile industry employs large numbers of work ers in other metalworking occupations. These in clude punch press operators who run powerdriven presses that vary in size from small presses used for forming brackets, clips, or other small parts to massive presses which form, trim, and pierce holes in automobile doors, body panels, and frames. Automobile plants employ many thousands of welders to join metal parts. Some manual electricarc welders and gas welders work in production jobs in parts and body manufacturing plants, and others work in maintenance jobs repairing and rebuilding machinery and equipment. Machine (resistance) welders are employed on assembly lines to weld the separate parts of the bodies and subassemblies. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK IusSpection occupations (D.O.T. 806.281; 283; 381; 382; 387; 684 and 687). Automobiles can be mass-produced because parts and subassemblies for the same make of automobile are interchange able. These parts are made to exact measurements and are subject to close quality control and inspec tion. (The industry employs statisticians and engineers in quality control departments who use statistical techniques designed to control the qual ity of the product.) Inspectors check incoming raw materials, examine parts during the manufacturing stages, and make quality and conformity checks during the subassembly and assembly operations. Micro meters, specially designed gages, and other meas uring and testing instruments are used by inspec tors and testers in performing their duties. Finishing occupations. Many finishing opera tions must be performed before a car is completed. For example, the metal surfaces must be readied for finishing, the exteriors painted, the interiors covered, the seats upholstered, and finally, the finished product must undergo a thorough inspec tion. Among those employed in the finishing de partments are metal finishers, platers, sprayers, polishers, sanders, trim cutters, sewing machine operators, and trimmers. Metal finishers (D.O.T. 705.884) file and polish rough surface areas of metal parts in preparation for painting. Platers (D.O.T. 500.885) put a thin coat of chrome on automobile bumpers and “hardware” for orna mentation and protection against corrosion. Sprayers (D-.O.T. 741.887) operate spray guns to apply paint or other finishes to the metal parts. Polishers (D.O.T. 705.884) rub the finished sur faces by hand or polish them with a portable motor-driven buffing wheel. Cutters, sewing machine operators, and trim mers combine their skills to provide comfortable and attractive interiors. With hand shears or an electric knife, the cutter (D.O.T. 781.884) cuts fabric or leather to the specific shape according to a pattern. The sewing machine operator (D.O.T. 787.782), using a power-driven machine, sews together the upholstery sections after they have been cut to size. Trimmers (D.O.T. 780.884) arrange and fasten springs and padding or foam rubber for the seats and backs, and tack the cov ering material in place. 715 MOTOR VEHICLE AND EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURING Polisher readies automobile hood for paint. Assembling occupations (D.O.T. 806.887). The workers who do motor vehicle assembling make up the largest occupational group in the automo bile industry. Assemblers may put together small parts to form subassemblies or they may put together the parts and subassemblies to form the motor vehicle (line assemblies). Those employed on subassemblies work in parts plants or in auto mobile manufacturing plants. Those who put together the completed car work in automobile assembly plants. Most assembly jobs are repetitive and require little skill; however, they do require coordina tion and may be strenuous. Assembly-line work is divided into many simple operations. Each employee is assigned a job to be done while the automobile is passing his work station. For example, one employee may start nuts on bolts and the next worker may tighten the nuts. Materials handling, custodial, and plant pro tection occupations. The production of motor vehicles by the assembly-line process requires an elaborate system of materials movement to sup ply the assembly lines and to remove finished products. A considerable number of workers are employed to move materials in automobile and automobile parts plants. Drivers operate power trucks which deliver parts or subassemblies to the assembly line or move materials between plants. Materials handlers load and unload parts from trucks or into and out of containers. Over head crane operators use machines to move raw steel stock, heavy dies, and other materials that cannot be lifted by hand. Many employees are needed to keep the produc tion employees supplied with tools, parts, and materials, and to keep records of materials. Factory clerks, such as checkers, stock chasers, and stock clerks, coordinate the delivery of parts to the proper location on the assembly line. They check, receive, and distribute materials and keep records of incoming and outgoing shipments. The automobile industry also employs many workers in plant protection and custodial work. These employees include plant patrolmen, gatemen, janitors, and porters. Maintenance occupations. A large staff is required to keep machines and equipment in good operating condition and to make changes in the layout of automobile plants. Because breakdowns in the assembly lines and in the Operator hoists engine into position for testing. 716 highly mechanized machining lines are particu larly costly, the automobile industry employs many skilled maintenance employees to service this complicated production system. The main tenance and repair of complex electrical, elec tronic, and hydraulic equipment require welltrained electricians, electronic technicians, and machinery repairmen. Millwrights move, install, and maintain heavy machinery and mechanical equipment. Plumbers and pipefitters lay out, install, and repair piping, valves, pumps, and compressors. Other maintenance employees in automobile plants include carpenters, stationary engineers, and sheet metal workers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The training requirements for jobs in the automobile industry range from a few hours of on-the-job training to years of preparation. Many plant workers can learn their jobs in a day or two. On the other hand, engineering and sci entific jobs, as well as craft jobs, are filled by people who have spent many years in training for their occupations. The automobile industry’s emphasis upon new designs and mechanical improvements has made it an important employer of persons with engi neering and scientific backgrounds. The mini mum requirement for professional engineering jobs is a bachelor of science or a bachelor of engineering degree from a recognized college. Advanced degrees are often required for scien tists, particularly for those engaged in research and development work. Many of the companies give their newly hired engineers and scientists specialized training courses. It is from this group of professional workers that some com panies have selected many of their top executives. The requirements for other technical employees vary according to their specialties. For example, engineering aids, laboratory assistants, and draftsmen are often technical institute or junior college graduates. Some automobile companies train their own semiprofessional technical employ ees at company-run schools or subsidize students at local junior colleges or technical institutes. These employees may also take advanced training and acquire engineering degrees. Administrative positions are usually filled by men and women who have college degrees in OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK business administration, marketing, accounting, industrial relations, or other specialized fields. Some companies have advanced training pro grams for employees in these specialties. Most of the top administrative jobs are filled by promotion from within the organization. Most automobile firms hire people who have had commercial courses in high schools or busi ness schools for office jobs such as clerk, book keeper, keypunch operator, stenographer, and typist. These people usually have not been trained specifically for jobs in this industry. Applicants for most plant jobs must be physi cally able, dependable, and have aptitude for mechanical work. For semiskilled jobs, the industry looks for applicants who are high school graduates and who can do routine work at a steady and fast pace. Many assembling jobs can be learned in a few hours or days. Some of the less skilled machine operating jobs can be learned in a few weeks. Other plant production jobs require about a month of on-the-job experi ence. Extensive periods of training are required for craft jobs in the automobile industry. Tool and die makers, patternmakers, electricians, mill wrights, and machinery repairmen are some of the highly skilled workers who generally require at least 4 years of training before they can perform their specialized jobs. Although many of the workers in craft jobs have acquired the skills of their trade by working for many years with experienced workers, most training authori ties agree that apprenticeship is the best way to learn a skilled trade. Automobile firms, in cooper ation with labor unions, conduct apprenticeship programs for many of the skilled trades. The industry’s apprenticeship programs enable several thousand young men each year to prepare them selves for skilled jobs. Applicants for apprenticeship training are generally required to be between the ages of 18 and 26 (one-third of the apprentices can be workers between the ages of 26 and 41 who are already employed in automobile companies) and graduates of a high school, trade, or vocational school. Training authorities stress that young people interested in apprenticeship training should prepare themselves by taking courses in mathematics and other sciences. Apprentice MOTOR VEHICLE AND EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURING applicants are given physical examinations, mechanical aptitude tests, and other qualifying tests. Apprenticeship training includes both on-thejob and classroom instruction related to the occupation. Mathematics, blueprint reading, shop theory, and specialized subjects are studied in the classroom, while the operation and use of tools of a particular trade are learned in the shop. Most automobile companies select their fore men from among workers already employed. Frequently, persons who have completed appren tice training in a company are selected for supervisory jobs after they have acquired further experience. Applicants for foreman jobs, if selected, go through a training period when promoted to the foreman level. Employment Outlook The automobile industry is expected to provide thousands of job openings during the 1965-75 decade as a result of the need to replace experi enced workers who transfer to other industries, retire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone should provide about 15,000 job openings annually. On the other hand, because of laborsaving techno logical advances, employment in the industry is expected to decline slightly below the 1965 level of 875,000 despite anticipated large increases in the production of motor vehicles and parts. Production of motor vehicles and parts and, therefore, employment have fluctuated sharply since the end of World War II, reflecting the industry’s sensitivity to factors such as changes in general business conditions, consumer preference, availability of credit, and defense production needs. In the future, assuming the realization of relatively full employment nationally, the produc tion of motor vehicles and equipment is expected to increase greatly. Factors contributing to the growth in demand for motor vehicles include expected large increases in population and in the number of households, growth of multicar owner ship, higher levels of personal spendable income, and a continuing shift of families from the cities to the suburbs. Also, as the stock of motor vehicles in use continues to grow, the demand for vehicles will be stimulated by the increasing numbers of new vehicles needed each year to replace those that are scrapped. 717 In addition to production of motor vehicles and parts, another major factor determining employ ment in this industry is the number of man-hours required to build a motor vehicle or to produce a part. Man-hour requirements have declined sig nificantly in recent years and have exerted a downward pressure on employment. For example, employment in the industry in 1964 was about the same as in 1954, despite a substantial increase in the number of motor vehicles produced. In the decade ahead, the industry’s continued emphasis upon mechanized production methods, such as automatic assembly operations, especially subassembly, is expected to continue to increase out put per worker. New and modernized plants are also expected to lead to further efficiencies in pro duction that will reduce labor requirements. How ever, increased production efficiency will be partly offset by the greater number of man-hours re quired to produce an increasing variety of models and a growing number of motor vehicles with equipment such as improved safety devices, airconditioners, power brakes, and exhaust control devices. Taking into account all of these factors, and assuming the realization of relatively full employ ment nationally and the high rates of economic growth necessary to achieve this goal, employment in the motor vehicle and equipment manufactur ing industry by 1975 is expected to be somewhat below the 1965 level. If these high levels of economic activity are not realized, the employ ment decline in this industry will be greater than anticipated. The occupational distribution of employment in the automobile industry has been changing as a result of the industry’s emphasis upon research and development activity and its increasing use of automatic manufacturing operations. For ex ample, white-collar employment as a proportion of total employment in this industry has been increasing in the postwar period. Continuing recent occupational trends, the num ber of engineers, scientists, and other professional and technical personnel is expected to increase as a proportion of total employment, because of the anticipated expansion in research and develop ment activities. Moreover, this emphasis upon research and development will create more job opportunities for engineers and scientists with 718 advanced degrees. The growing complexity of the automobile industry will lead to a greater need for more accountants, particularly those specializing in tax accounting. The industry is expected to expand its use of electronic data-processing equipment in the future, and programers will be employed in greater numbers. Employ ment of clerical and administrative workers is expected to remain at about the present level. Although the introduction of data-processing equipment may reduce the number employed in some clerical occupations, a slight increase in the number of stenographers and typists is antici pated. The employment of skilled workers, as a group, is expected to remain relatively stable. However, some skilled occupations, including millwright, pipefitter, electrician, and machinery repairman, are expected to increase; others, including car penter and upholsterer are expected to decline. The number of semiskilled workers, such as as semblers and machine operators, is expected to continue to decline. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of production workers in this industry are among the highest in manufacturing. In mid-1965, production workers in the automobile industry earned, on the average, $143.49 for 43.3 hours a week, or $3.31 an hour. This compares with average earnings of $107.03 for a 41.0 hour week, or $2.61 an hour, for production workers in all manufacturing industries. As a result of collective bargaining contracts negotiated between employers and unions, most employees in the industry receive benefits such as life insurance, accidental death and dismember ment benefits, and weekly accident and sickness benefits for temporary disability. Many employ ers pay the entire costs of these benefits. Hospi talization, surgical, and medical benefits, which are provided as a result of collective bargaining, are usually financed solely by employers. Most employees also receive paid sick leave; paid vaca tions (or payments in lieu of vacations) ranging from 2 to 4 weeks depending on length of service; and an average of 9 paid holidays a year. Supplemental unemployment benefits plans (paid for solely by the employers) cover the ma OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK jority of workers. These plans provide cash pay ments for employees with at least 1 year of service ranging up to $56 a week for hourly rated em ployees and up to $66 a week for some salaried employees. In most States these benefits are in addition to those received from State unemploy ment compensation plans. These plans also provide supplementary pay benefits (short work week benefits) to help stabilize the income of hourly rated employees when they are required to work less than a normal week. In addition, pro visions are included for hospitalization, surgical, and medical benefits during layoff; separation payments for those laid off 12 or more continuous months; and relocation allowances for some laidoff employees. A great majority of the automobile workers are covered by pension programs, almost all of which are paid for entirely by the employer. Retirement benefits vary with length of service. In a typical case, a retiring employee, age 65, with 30 years’ service, receives a monthly company pension of $127.50 in addition to his Federal social security benefits. Many pension programs also include provisions for voluntary retirement as early as age 55. The great bulk of the production and mainte nance workers in the automobile assembly plants and a majority employed in the parts plants belong to the International Union, United Auto mobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America. In some automobile parts plants, the International Union, Allied Indus trial Workers of America is the bargaining agent for employees. Other unions with membership in the automobile industry include the Interna tional Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Pattern Makers’ League of North America; the International Molders’ and Allied Workers’ Union of North America; the Metal Polishers, Buffers, Platers and Helpers Inter national Union; the International Union, United Plant Guard Workers of America (In d .); the Mechanics Educational Society of America; the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; and the International Die Sinkers’ Conference (Ind.). In general, the work surroundings in auto mobile plants are more favorable than those in most other types of metalworking facilities. Most MOTOR VEHICLE AND EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURING automobile workers are employed in plants which are relatively clean and free from dust, smoke, and fumes. Some work surroundings, however, particularly in the foundry and forge depart ments, may be hot and the worker may be exposed to noise, dust, and fumes. Working conditions in foundries and forge departments have been greatly improved by the introduction of larger, more efficient ventilation systems. 7 7 8 -3 1 6 O— 65- ■47 719 Automobile plants are, on the whole, com paratively safe places to work, although safety conditions vary somewhat among the individual departments or facilities. The rate of disabling injuries in automobile plants has been less than half that of all manufacturing industries in most of the recent years. Some automobile plants have fully equipped hospital facilities with doctors and nurses in attendance. OCCUPATIONS IN PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING The petroleum industry provides about 75 per cent of all the energy fuels consumed in this country. Products refined from crude oil supply the fuels and lubricants used for nearly all our cars, trucks, buses and trains; military and civilian aircraft; and ships that sail on and below the ocean. Oil and gas provide much of the heat for our homes, factories, and commercial establishments, as well as the fuel for over onequarter of the electric power generated in this country. In addition, basic petroleum compounds are essential in the manufacture of hundreds of products in everyday use, such as synthetic rub ber, plastics, asphalt, and fertilizer. In 1964, about 440,000 workers, with a wide range of educational backgrounds and skills, were employed in the various activities that make up the crude oil and natural gas production and processing sectors of this industry. They worked in oil and natural gas exploration and drilling operations, in natural gas processing plants, and in oil refineries located throughout the country. Nature and Location of the Industry Petroleum is one of the fossil fuels, said to have been formed through thousands of years from the decay of once living matter. It is ex tracted mainly in the form of crude oil and natural gas. Thousands of companies are in the petroleum business, most of them specializing in a single activity, such as exploring for gas or oil, drilling wells, operating wells, transporting petroleum products, processing gas, and refining crude oil. Others operate gasoline service stations, or supply natural gas for heating and cooking. Much of the petroleum business, however, is done by a small number of large firms that are involved in many of the industry’s activities—from exploring for oil and gas to selling finished petroleum products. 720 These firms provide a large share of the industry’s jobs. This chapter deals with the jobs and activities involved in getting oil and gas to the surface of the earth (production) and converting it to usable products (processing and refining). I t ex cludes the transporting and marketing of petro leum products. Petroleum Production. Because the processes in volved in finding and extracting crude oil and natural gas are the same, the jobs and activities involved are identical up to the point where the gas or oil well starts producing. In this chapter, references to “petroleum production” also cover the discovery and extraction of natural gas. In 1964, nearly 290,000 wage and salary work ers were employed in the United States in petro leum production, including the production and processing of natural gas. Although drilling for oil and gas goes on in 35 States, nearly 90 percent of the workers are employed in 10 States. Texas is the leading State in the number of oilfield jobs, followed by Louisiana, Oklahoma, California, Kansas, Illinois, New Mexico, Wyoming, Missis sippi, and Colorado. Many additional American workers are employed overseas by United States oil companies, particularly in the Middle East, Africa, South America, and Canada. The jobs and processes in petroleum production involve finding crude oil and extracting it from the earth. Petroleum production includes three broad fields of work: Exploration, drilling and oilfield servicing, and well operation and main tenance. Firms that specialize in performing one or more of these activities under contract to oil companies, employ about 45 percent of all the workers in petroleum production. Major oil com panies engage in all of these production activities. Since oil is difficult to find—only rarely are there any signs on the earth’s surface of its pres PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING ence underground—an important part of petro leum production activities involves using scientific methods to search for oil. After scientific tests are made which indicate the possible presence of oil beneath the surface of the earth, a site is se lected and the drilling process begins. Before a well can be drilled, a towerlike steel drilling rig is installed to support the tools and pipes that must be lowered into the well. Most rigs used today are portable ones brought to the drilling site, but some rigs are built at the site. In 1964, over 45,000 wells were drilled in the United States, with a depth per well averaging over 4,000 feet. Although a few large firms do some of their own drilling, about 90 percent of this work is performed by more than 2,800 special ized drilling contractors. A number of other services are performed in connection with oilfield drilling. These include building access roads, hauling supplies, cement ing wells, cleaning and treating wells, and other special operations. Much of this work is handled by contractors. A t an offshore oil well, rotary drilling crew lowers a section of drill pipe. 721 When oil is reached, the job of the drilling crew is finished and that of the well-operating crew begins. About half of all petroleum produc tion workers operate or maintain nearly 700,000 oil and gas producing wells in the United States. These wells are operated by thousands of com panies which range in size from large firms with wells all over the world to small firms with only a single well. After oil or gas is brought out of the ground, it is transported to refineries or processing plants by pipelines, ships, and trucks. Petroleum Refining. Crude oil as it comes from the ground has few uses. To make useful end products, such as gasoline, fuel oil, kerosene, and lubricants, oil must be heated under pressure or vacuum, or treated with chemicals. This process ing, called refining, is done in plants known as refineries. About 280 refineries were in operation through out the country in 1964, employing more than 150,000 wage and salary workers. Refineries range in size from small plants with fewer than 50 employees each to plants with several thousand employees each. Although refineries are located in 40 States, nearly 80 percent of refinery work ers are employed in only 8 States: Texas, Cali fornia, Pennsylvania, New York, Louisiana, Indiana, Illinois, and New Jersey. Refineries are usually located near deepwater ports where tankers can dock, or near oilfields. Natural Gas Processing. Natural gas as it comes from the ground is difficult to transmit through pipelines for long distances because of the various liquid compounds dissolved in it. As a result, natural gas processing plants, which remove these liquids, are usually located at or near gas fields. However, a few companies have found it desir able to locate large processing plants adjacent to main transmission lines, at a point several hun dred miles from the producing area. Recently constructed plants are highly automated and usually have relatively few employees. In 1964, over 600 natural gas processing plants employed about 15,000 workers. More than 75 percent of the plants had fewer than 50 em ployees. Although natural gas processing plants are located in 20 States, over 85 percent were lo cated in 6 States: Texas, Oklahoma, California, Louisiana, West Virginia, and New Mexico. 722 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employment Outlook Even though employment in petroleum and natural gas production and processing is expected to continue the gradual decline which began dur ing the 1950’s, there will still be many job op portunities in this industry in the 1965-75 decade. Opportunities will result from the need to re place workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields. Deaths and retirements alone will account for more than 10,000 job openings in this industry each year during the decade. However, not all workers will be replaced because of the industry’s increasing use of automatic equipment. Employment in the industry is expected to decline despite the fact that the demand for petroleum and natural gas products will con tinue to increase. Lower employment will result from the continued application of technological improvements which will lead to further increases in output per worker. The employment decline is expected to be more pronounced in the highly automated oil refineries. Employment will show little or no change in petroleum production ac tivities, which now account for about two-thirds of the industry’s total production and refinery employment. To summarize, the overall employ ment outlook for the industry is for decreases in petroleum refining and petroleum exploration; an increase in petroleum drilling; and little or no change in overall petroleum and natural gas pro duction and in natural gas processing. Most of the factors responsible for past growth in the demand for the industry’s products will continue to influence future growth. For example, gasoline consumption is expected to rise steadily with the expected expansion in numbers of auto mobiles, trucks, buses, and airplanes. The demand for jet fuels will increase as the use of jet planes expands. The demand for fuels for home heating units and for industrial uses such as steam genera tion is expected to rise. The growing use of fac tory, construction, farm, and other industrial machinery will require many oil products, such as diesel oil and lubricants. Demand for asphalt will be higher as highway construction expands. Oil and natural gas will continue to be important sources of raw materials in the manufacture of chemical products. (See pages 726 and 729 for additional discussions of the employment outlook in petroleum production and processing.) Where To G o for More Information Further information concerning jobs, processes, and working conditions in the petroleum industry can be obtained from the public relations depart ment of individual petroleum companies and from : American Petroleum Institute, 1101 17th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. American Gas Association, 605 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016. Natural Gas Processors Association, 429 Kennedy Building, Tulsa, Okla. 74103. Occupations in Petroleum and Natural G as Production Nature of Work Workers in the petroleum production branch of the oil industry explore for crude oil and natural gas, drill wells, and operate and maintain them. These activities require workers with a wide range of education and skills. (In this sec tion, references to oil include natural gas.) Exploration. Exploring for oil is the first step in petroleum production. Small crews of specialized workers travel to remote areas to search for geological formations likely to contain oil. Ex ploration parties, led by a petroleum geologist (D.O.T. 024.081), study the surface and sub surface composition of the earth. Geologists seek clues to the possibility of oil traps by examining types of rock and rock formations on and under the earth’s surface. Besides making detailed, foot-by-foot surveys, petroleum geologists depend on aerial photgraphs for a broad picture of the surface features of the area being explored; they may also obtain rock samples from the bottom of the sea in their search for clues to oil-bearing formations. Geologists often determine the age of rocks by measuring their radioactivity. Sub surface evidence is collected by making test drills and bringing up samples of the rocks, clays, and sands that form the layers of the earth. From these examinations, geologists can draw a crosssection map of the underground formations be- PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING ing surveyed in order to pinpoint areas where oil may be located. Many geologists work in district offices of oil companies or exploration firms where they study geological maps. They also analyze core samples collected by exploration parties to find any clue to the presence of oil. Exploration parties may include, in addition to the geologist, paleontologists (D.O.T. 024.081), who study fossil remains in the earth in order to locate oil-bearing sands; and chemists (D.O.T. 022.081) and. mineralogists (D.O.T. 024.081), who study physical and chemical properties of min erals and rock samples. Planetable operators (D.O.T. 018.188), draftsmen (D.O.T. 010.281), and rod/men (D.O.T. 018.587) assist in surveying and mapping operations. Another way of searching for oil is through the science of geophysics—the study of the inner characteristics of the earth’s structure. About 90 percent of geophysical exploration is done by seismic prospecting. The seismograph is a sensi tive instrument which records natural and man made earthquakes. Manmade earthquakes in petroleum exploration are commonly made by ex ploding small charges of dynamite in the ground. The time it takes for sound waves to reach an Geologist uses a jeweler's loupe to study test hole core samples. 723 underground rock layer and to return indicates the depth of the layer. The seismograph records such information by wavy lines on a chart. By setting off explosions at a number of points, un derground formations can be mapped with con siderable accuracy, thus providing a clue to the whereabouts of traps which may contain oil. A seismograph crew generally includes 10 to 20 persons, led by a party chief who is usually a geophysicist (D.O.T. 024.081). Other members of the seismograph crew may include computers (D.O.T. 010.168), who prepare maps from the information recorded by the seismograph; ob servers (D.O.T. 010.168), who operate and main tain seismic equipment; prospecting drillers (D.O.T. 930.782) and their helpers (D.O.T. 930.886), who operate portable drilling rigs to make holes into which explosive charges are placed; and shooters (D.O.T. 931.381), who are in charge of placing and detonating explosive charges. Once the oil company has decided where to drill, it must obtain permission to use the land. The landman or leaseman (D.O.T. 191.118) makes necessary business arrangements with owners of land in which his company is interested. Another important job in oil exploration is that of the scout (D.O.T. 010.168). He keeps his company informed of all exploring, leasing, drill ing, and production activity in his area. Drilling. Despite all the petroleum exploration methods that have been developed, there is no device that will actually find petroleum. Only by drilling can the presence of oil be proved. Overall planning and supervision of drilling are usually the responsibilities of the petroleum engi neer (D.O.T. 010.081). He helps to prepare drill ing sites and to select the methods of drilling. He directs workers in installing the drilling rig and machinery. He advises drilling personnel on technical matters and may stay on the site until drilling operations are completed. There are two methods of drilling a well— rotary drilling and cable-tool drilling. No matter which method is used, all wells are started in the same way. Rig builders (D.O.T. 869.884) and a crew of helpers (D.O.T. 869.887) install a drilling rig, the main purpose of which is to sup 724 port the machinery and equipment which raise and lower the drilling tools. The rotary method is used for drilling deep wells through rock and clay formations such as those found in Texas, California, and Okla homa. This method was used for over 80 percent of the wells drilled in the United States in 1964, but accounts for only about 50 percent of the drill ing rigs in use. In rotary drilling, a revolving steel drill bit, with cutting teeth at its lower end, bores a hole in the ground by chipping and cutting rock. The bit is attached to a string of jointed pipe (drill stem), which is rotated by a steam, diesel, or gasoline engine or an electric motor. As the bit cuts through the earth, the drill stem is length ened by the addition of more pipe which is screwed on at the upper end. A stream of mud is continuously pumped through the hollow pipe. This mixture of clay and water cools the drill bit, plasters the walls of the hole to prevent cave-ins, and floats the cuttings to the surface. A typical rotary drilling crew consist of a rotary driller and four or five helpers. From 15 to 20 workers, divided into three crews, generally are required to operate a rig 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. A rotary driller (D.O.T. 930.782) is in charge of the work of the crew during his tour of duty. His major duties include oper ating the drilling machinery which controls drilling speed and pressure. He also selects the proper drill bit and keeps a record of operations. He must be ready to meet any emergency, such as breakdown of equipment or problems caused by unusual geological formations. A derrickman (D.O.T. 930.782), second in charge of the crew, works on a small platform high on the rig. When a drill bit becomes dull and has to be replaced, he catches the upper ends of the pipe sections and pulls them over to a rack beside his platform. He often has several miles of drill pipe racked up be fore the worn bit is brought to the surface. Other members of a typical rotary drilling crew include rotary -floormen (D.O.T. 930.884), who guide the lower end of the pipe to and from the well opening and connect and disconnect pipe joints and the worn drill bit. Helpers, called roughnecks (D.O.T. 930.884), assist floormen in handling these heavy pipes. A fireman (D.O.T. 951.885) (if steam is used) or engineman (D.O.T. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Derrickman works high above rig floor whenever pipe is hoisted from or lowered into well bore. 950.782) (if diesel or electric power is used) op erates the engines which provide power for drilling and hoisting. An important oilfield worker is the tool pusher (D.O.T. 930.130), who acts as foreman of one or more drilling rigs. He also is in charge of supply ing rig builders and drilling crews with needed materials and equipment. Roustabouts (D.O.T. 869.884), or general oilfield laborers, are not con sidered part of drilling crews but are used to do odd jobs, such as cleaning derrick floors and pipes or constructing and maintaining roads in oilfields. In cable-tool drilling, a hole is broken through rocks by continuously raising and dropping a heavy, sharpened bit attached to the end of a cable. Cable-tool drilling is used mainly to drill shallow wells in soft rock formation. Most of it is done in Kentucky, Ohio, West Virginia, Pennsylvania, and certain areas of Texas and Oklahoma. A cable-tool drilling crew usually consists of a driller and a tool dresser. The cable-tool driller (D.O.T. 930.280) is in charge of all operations during his tour of duty and maintains a detailed record of drilling activity. He controls the force with which the drilling bit strikes the rocks at the bottom of the well. He also supervises and PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING helps in setting up the machinery and derrick. The cable-tool dresser (D.O.T. 639.781), whose job is related to that of a blacksmith, assists the driller and maintains the equipment. Well Operation and Maintenance. Production is ready to begin when oil is struck. Drill pipe and bit are pulled from the well and casing and tubing are lowered. The upper end of the tubing is fast ened to a system of valves and controls, called a “Christmas tree.” Gas pressure in the well forces crude oil to the surface, through the Christmas tree, and into storage tanks. If nat ural pressure is not great enough to force the oil to the top, pumping or other methods are used to produce an artificial flow. Petroleum engineers generally have charge of overall planning and supervision of the opera tion and maintenance of wells. One of their principal duties is to prevent waste by deciding which production method to use and how fast the oil should flow. Some companies hire assist ants to the petroleum engineer. These engineering aids perform routine duties such as making ele mentary calculations, running tests, and keeping records. The job of pumper is numerically the largest occupation in the oilfield. Pumpers (D.O.T. 914.782) and their helpers (D.O.T. 914.887) op erate and maintain motors, pumps, and other equipment used to force an artificial flow of oil from wells. Their chief duty is to regulate the flow of oil according to a schedule set up by the petroleum engineer. Generally, a pumper operates a group of wells. Switchers work in fields where oil flows under natural pressure and does not require pumping. They open and close valves to regulate the flow of oil from wells to tanks or into pipelines. Gagers (D.O.T. 914.381) keep track of the amount of oil flowing into tanks or pipelines. They measure and record the con tents of storage tanks and take samples of the oil to check its quality. Treaters (D.O.T. 541.782) make tests of crude oil for water and sediment. They remove these impurities from oil by opening a drain at the base of the tank or by using special chemical or electrical equipment. In many fields, pumping, switching, gaging, and treating opera tions are performed by automatic controls. One operator who monitors these instruments can con 725 trol the flow of oil from several wells into differ ent pipelines. Many workers are employed in maintenance op erations in oilfields. Welders, carpenters, elec tricians, and machinists repair and install pumps, gages, pipes, and other oilfield equipment. Roust abouts perform various field and well-mainte nance jobs which require little skill, but often involve heavy, hazardous work. Other Oilfield Services. Companies which offer oilfield services (other than exploration and drilling) on a contract basis provide another important source of employment. Employees in these companies perform many services, includ ing cementing and cleaning wells, and building foundations at well locations. Among these employees are skilled workers such as cementers (D.O.T. 930.281), who mix and pump cement into the space between steel casings and side walls of the well to prevent cave-ins; acidizers (D.O.T. 930.782), who force acid into the bottom of the well to increase the flow of oil; perforator opera tors (D.O.T. 931.782), who pierce holes in drill pipes or casings by using subsurface “guns” to make passages through which oil can flow; sample-taker operators (D.O.T. 931.781), who ob tain samples of soil and rock formations from wells to help geologists determine the presence of oil; and well puller (D.O.T. 930.883), who remove pipes and casings from wells for cleaning and re pairing equipment or for salvaging. Offshore Operations. Most exploration, drilling, and producing activities are done on land, but an increasing amount of this work is done off shore, particularly in the Gulf of Mexico off the coasts of Louisiana and Texas. Some wells have been drilled as far as 100 miles from shore in water more than 200 feet deep. These offshore operations require the same types of drilling crews as are employed on land operations. In addition, offshore operations require employment of radio men, able-bodied seamen, cooks, mess boys, and pilots for work on drilling platforms, crew boats, barges, and helicopters. (Detailed discussions of professional, tech nical, mechanical, and other occupations found not only in the petroleum and natural gas pro duction industry, but in other industries as well, 726 are given elsewhere in the Handbook, in the sec tions covering the individual occupations. See index for page numbers.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Exploration. Most workers in nonprofessional jobs with an exploration crew begin as helpers and work into one of the specialized jobs after gaining experience. Their period of training on the job may vary from several months to several years. New workers are usually hired in the field by the party chief or by local company repre sentatives. For many nonprofessional jobs, com panies hire young men with a high school or vocational school education and with training or aptitude in mathematics, drafting, and mechanics. College students majoring in physical or earth sciences or in engineering are often hired for parttime or summer work with an exploration crew. This may be a means of working into a full-time job after graduation. For entry into professional occupations such as geologist, geophysicist, chemist, or engineer, college training with at least a bachelor’s degree is required. Professional workers usually start at junior levels and, after several years of experi ence in field surveys, are eligible for promotion to the job of party chief. After field survey experi ence, they may take a position of responsibility in an area or division office and then perhaps in the central office. Scientists and engineers with research ability, preferably those with advanced graduate degrees, may move to research or con sulting work. Drilling. Members of drilling crews usually begin work in the industry as roughnecks. As they acquire experience and know-how, they may advance to more skilled jobs. In rotary drilling, for example, a worker may be hired as a roughneck, advance to the job of doorman, and eventually to derrickman. After several years, he may become a driller. He may then be promoted to the job of tool-pusher in charge of one or more drilling crews. Some drilling com panies hire high school and college students for jobs during the summer months. Drilling requires men capable of performing heavy physical labor. Drilling crew members OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK usually are between the ages of 20 and 40. Some companies, however, report that their best drillers are over fifty and even in their sixties, for the job of driller requires good judgment combined with practical experience. Well Operation and Maintenance. Companies generally hire persons who live near operating wells for well operation and maintenance jobs. They prefer men with mechanical ability and a knowledge of oilfield processes. Because this type of work is less strenuous and offers the advantage of a fixed locale, members of drilling crews or ex ploration parties who prefer not to travel often transfer to well operation and maintenance jobs. New workers may start as roustabouts and advance to jobs as switchers, gagers, or pumper helpers, and later to pumpers. Training is usually acquired on the job; at least 2 years of experience are needed to become a good all-round pumper. The preferred educational qualification for a petroleum engineer is a college degree with spe cialization in courses dealing with the petroleum industry. However, college graduates with degrees in chemical, mining, or mechanical engi neering, or in geology or other related sciences, are sometimes hired for petroleum engineering jobs. Petroleum engineering aids frequently are former roustabouts or pumpers who are given several months of specialized on-the-job and classroom training. Employment Outlook Employment in petroleum and natural gas pro duction during the 1965-75 decade is expected to show little or no change, in contrast to the slow decline of employment in this activity which began during the late 1950’s. As in the past, pro duction will continue to increase. Little change is expected in total employment in oil and gas production because of the divergent employment trends among three principal pro duction activities—exploration, drilling, and oil and gas field production. The use of data-processing equipment and improved seismic techniques is expected to reduce the number of crews needed in petroleum exploration. This decline is expected to be more than offset by increased demand for drilling crews and supporting personnel, resulting PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING from new discoveries and renewed drilling efforts on land, combined with intensified offshore ac tivity. The employment level in oil and gas field production is expected to stay about the same, and may even decline somewhat, despite increased demand for these products, because of the in creasing use of automatic equipment to control production activities. About 6,000 new workers in crude petroleum production operations will be hired each year during the next decade. These job openings will result primarily from the need to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Although some untrained workers will be hired for less skilled jobs, the greatest demand will be for workers with electrical and mechanical train ing and/or experience. These skills are becoming more necessary to maintain and repair the increas ingly complex equipment used in oil and gas field production. Most of the job opportunities created by turn over in petroleum production will be concentrated in the seven States which together account for over 85 percent of oilfield jobs—Texas, Louisiana, California, Oklahoma, Wyoming, Kansas, and New Mexico. Offshore activities have accounted for only a small portion of total production employment. However, offshore drilling activities are expected to increase greatly in the next 10 years, particularly off the coasts of Texas, Louis iana, California, Alaska, Washington, and Oregon. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of oilfield workers are among the highest in American industry. In mid-1965, earn ings of nonsupervisory employees averaged $115.51 a week, or $2.77 an hour for a 41.7 hour workweek. The average starting salary in 1965 for geol 727 ogists with a bachelor’s degree and no experience was about $550 a month. Graduates with a mas ter’s degree started at about $650 a month, and those with a doctor’s degree usually earned more. Graduates with job-related experience and spe cial skills were paid above-average entrance salaries. Salaries for overseas assignments ranged from 20 to 40 percent more than those for com parable assignments in the United States. The work schedule for most oilfield workers is 40 hours a week. Drilling operations are car ried on 24 hours a day, with a complete crew for each 8-hour shift. Generally, workers in these crews receive 8 cents an hour more for work on the second shift and 16 cents an hour more for the third shift. Most establishments provide 8 paid holidays annually. Paid vacations are granted according to length of service—generally, 2 weeks after 1 year of service, 3 weeks after 10 years, and 4 weeks after 20 years. The majority of oilfield employees do most of their work outdoors and are exposed to all kinds of weather. Although some fields may be near cities, they are more often far from sizable communities and are sometimes located in swamps or deserts. Drilling employees may expect to move from place to place since their work in a particular field may be completed in less than a year. Exploration personnel move even more frequently. They may be away from home for weeks or months at a time, living in a trailer or tent. Workers in well operation and maintenance often remain in the same location for long periods. In offshore operations, earnings are usually higher than those in land operations. Except for drilling activity that is close to shore, work er’s living quarters are on platforms held fast to the ocean bottom or on ships anchored nearby. Petroleum Refining Occupations Nature of Work Petroleum refining changes crude oil into gaso line, kerosene, fuel oil, lubricants, and other pro ducts for use in homes and industry. The modern refinery is a complicated structure made up of tanks and towers connected by a maze of pipes. From the time crude oil enters the refinery to the shipment of finished products, the flow of produc tion is continuous. The refining process is highly automatic and is controlled by instruments which measure and regulate the flow, temperature, and pressure of liquids and gases going through the pipes and tanks. Manual handling of materials is virtually eliminated in the modern refinery. Briefly, the first step in petroleum refining con sists of heating crude oil as it flows through a 728 series of pipes in a furnace. The vapors from the heated oil pass into a tower where the various “fractions,” or parts, of crude oil are condensed. The heaviest parts (for example, asphalt) are drawn off along the bottom of the tower where temperatures are highest; lighter parts (kerosene) are drawn off along the middle of the tower; and the lightest (gasoline and gases) are taken off at the top where temperatures are lowest. Further processing, by more complicated methods, com bines or modifies compounds obtained through fractioning. About a fourth of the plant workers in re fineries are employed in processing work. A key worker in converting crude oil into usable prod ucts is the stillman (D.O.T. 542.280), or chief operator. He is responsible for the efficient op eration of one or more distillation units. The stillman watches instrument readings for any changes in temperature, pressure, and oil flow. In the more modern refineries, the stillman can watch in struments on graphic panels which show the entire operation of all distillation units in the refinery. He regulates the instruments so that oil products will meet specifications. From time to time, the stillman patrols all units for which he is responsi ble to check their operating condition and to take samples for testing. He may have one or more assistants (D.O.T. 542.782), depending on the number and size of the units he directs. Other plant workers whose jobs are related to the processing of crude oil include pumpmen (D.O.T. 549.782) and their helpers (D.O.T. 549.884), who maintain and operate power-driven pumps which circulate petroleum products, chemicals, and water through units during proc essing; and treaters (D.O.T. 549.782), who op erate equipment to remove impurities from gaso line, oil, and other petroleum products. In most refineries more than 40 percent of the plant workers repair, rebuild, and clean the highly complicated refinery equipment. In other plants, maintenance work is contracted to companies out side the petroleum industry. A large number of maintenance workers are needed because high heat and pressure and corrosion quickly wear out equipment. Included among these are skilled boilermakers, carpenters, electricians, instrument repairmen, lead burners, machinists, masons, painters, pipefitters, pipe coverers, riggers, sheet- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Head operator sets instrument controls that direct operation of refinery processing unit. metal workers, and welders. Many helpers and trainees are also in these trades. Some skilled workers have a primary skill in one craft as well as the ability to handle the duties of closely re lated crafts. For example, a pipefitter may also be able to do boilermaking and welding repair work on a piece of equipment. Maintenance work ers who have such combined jobs are sometimes called refinery mechanics. Plant workers who do not operate or main tain equipment do a variety of other tasks in refineries. Some workers are employed in the packaging and shipping department; some load and unload materials on trucks, trains, or ships; some drive trucks and tractors to deliver materials to various parts of the plant; and others keep inventory records of stock and tools. The indus try also employs custodial workers such as guards, watchmen, and janitors. About one-fifth (more than 30,000) of the workers in petroleum refining are scientists, engi neers, and technicians, compared with less than one-tenth in petroleum production. Among these professional and technical refinery workers are chemists, chemical engineers, mechanical engi neers, petroleum engineers, laboratory technicians, PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING and draftsmen. Chemists and laboratory tech nicians control the quality of petroleum products by making tests and analyses to determine chemi cal and physical properties. Some chemists are engaged in research and development activities to discover new products and to improve those already produced. Laboratory technicians also assist chemists in research projects or do routine testing and sample taking. Some engineers design chemical processing equipment and plant layout and others supervise refining processes. Drafts men prepare detailed plans and drawings needed in refinery construction and maintenance. Many administrative, clerical, and other whitecollar personnel are employed by refining com panies. A large number of top administrative and management positions are filled by tech nically trained men, many of whom are chemists or engineers. Sales engineers are also technically trained. Other specialized workers in the field of administration include accountants, purchasing agents, and lawyers. Many typists, stenographers, secretaries, bookkeepers, and business machine operators are employed to assist these specialized workers. (Detailed discussions of professional, technical, mechanical, and other occupations found not only in the petroleum refining industry but in other industries as well are given in the section of this Handbook covering the individual occupations. See index for page numbers.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Petroleum refineries typically require new plant workers to have a high school or vocational school education. In large refineries, aptitude and psy chological testing and interviewing are used in selecting employees. Usually, a new worker begins in a labor pool where he does such jobs as moving materials, packing cartons, or filling barrels. When a vacancy occurs either in a processing department or in a maintenance shop, he may be transferred to one or the other, depending on his particular aptitudes and seniority. A worker newly assigned to a processing de partment learns to operate processing equipment under the supervision of experienced workers. As he gains experience and know-how, he moves to the more skilled jobs in his department. For ex ample, one line of advancement for a process 729 ing worker may be from helper to assistant stillman to Stillman. Skilled processing workers are rarely recruited from other plants. An inexperienced worker who is assigned to a maintenance shop receives training on the job under the supervision of the foreman. In some refineries, he may also receive classroom instruc tion related to his particular work. Over a period of 3 or 4 years, he may advance from helper to skilled craftsman in one of the main tenance jobs. Some large refineries have pro grams under which workers are given training in several related maintenance crafts. For exam ple, a qualified instrument repairman may be given additional training as electrician or machinist. For scientists and engineers a bachelors degree in science or engineering usually is the minimum educational requirement. For research jobs, scientists and engineers with advanced degrees are preferred. Laboratory assistants begin their work in routine jobs and advance to positions of greater responsibility as they acquire additional experience and demonstrate ability to work with out close supervision. Inexperienced draftsmen begin as copyists or tracers. With additional experience and training, they may advance to more skilled and responsible drafting positions. Administrative positions generally are filled by men and women who have college degrees in business administration, marketing, accounting, industrial relations, or other specialized fields. For positions as clerks, bookkeepers, stenogra phers, and typists, most refineries employ per sons who have had commercial courses in high school or business school. Employment Outlook Only a small number of job openings are ex pected for new workers in petroleum refineries during the 1965-75 decade. These will result from the need to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other industries. Not all job vacancies created by turnover may be filled, since it is expected that in the decade ahead total employ ment in petroleum refining will continue a decline which began during the early 1950’s. This decline is expected despite the continued expansion of refinery output and anticipated in creases in consumption of petroleum products in 730 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK the years ahead. (See p. 722 for a discussion of some of the factors which will influence future demand for oil products.) A lower employment level is expected because of improved methods of refining crude oil and the trend toward fewer but larger and more highly automated refineries. Most of the job opportunities created by turn over in petroleum refining will be for professional, administrative, and technical workers, partic ularly chemists, chemical engineers, and techni cians, who are needed for the industry’s research and development activities. Among plant work ers, most job opportunities will be in maintenance occupations, such as those of instrument repair man, pipefitter, machinist, and maintenance elec trician, because of the increasing use of automated equipment and complex control instruments. Earnings and Working Conditions Refinery workers are among the highest paid employees in American industry. In mid-1965, production workers in petroleum refining averaged $143.52 a week, or $3.45 an hour for a 41.6 hour workweek, compared with an average for all manufacturing industries of $108.21 a week, or $2.62 an hour for a 41.1 hour workweek. The higher average earnings of production workers in refineries reflect the relatively large proportion of workers in skilled occupations. Entry salaries for chemists and chemical engi neers in the petroleum refining industry were the highest in American industry, according to a survey conducted by the American Chemical Society in 1964. The survey showed that in this industry the average starting salary for chemists with a bachelor’s degree and no experience was $585 a month and for chemical engineers, $625 a month. Many petroleum refinery workers receive a 2week vacation with pay after 1 year of service; 3 weeks, after 5 years; and 4 weeks, after 10 years. A large number of refineries have adopted some type of insurance, pension, and medical and surgical plans for their employees. Employee stock-purchase and savings plans, to which the employer makes contributions, are in effect in many firms. Because petroleum refining is a continuous round-the-clock operation, operators may be as signed to one of three shifts, or they may be rotated on various shifts and be subject to Sun day and holiday work. Employees usually receive 8 to 16 cents an hour additional pay when they work on the second or third shift. Most mainte nance workers are on duty during the day shift; only a few work at night to handle emergencies. Work in the industry has little seasonal vari ation and regular workers have year-round jobs. Most refinery jobs require only moderate physical effort. A few workers, however, have to open and close heavy valves and climb stairs and ladders to considerable heights in the course of their duties. Others may work in hot places or may be exposed to unpleasant odors. Refineries are relatively safe places in which to work. The injury-frequency rate is about half that of manu facturing as a whole. A majority of refinery plant workers are union members. A large number of refineries have been organized by the Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers International Union. Some refinery workers are members of other AFL-CIO unions or of various local unions not affiliated with the AFL-CIO. Natural G as Processing Occupations Nature of Work A natural gas processing plant performs several functions. Raw natural gas is processed to extract natural gas liquids, and impurities, such as sand and water. The natural gas liquid com pounds—propane, butane, and natural gasoline— have important uses e.g., as raw materials for the chemical industry and oil refineries, and as a fuel in rural areas. In addition, natural gas may be compressed, for delivery to pipeline transporta tion companies or for use by oil well operators to force oil out of the ground. More than 50 percent of the workers in the larger natural gas processing plants are employed in operating or maintaining processing equip ment. Operators, numerically the largest plant occupation, have duties very similar to those of the oil refinery workers. The dehydration-plant PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING operator (D.O.T. 541.782) tends an automatically controlled treating unit which removes water and other impurities from natural gas. The gasolineplant operator, or gasoline-plant engineer (D.O.T. 950.782), operates equipment which extracts nat ural gasoline from natural gas. The compressorstation operator, or compressor-station engineer (D.O.T. 914.132) operates a compressor which raises the pressure of the gas for transmission in the pipelines. The gas-compressor operator, (D.O.T. 950.782), assists either of the last two em ployees named above. The gas plant operator or stillman, gas plant (D.O.T. 540.280), operates the unit which removes sulfur from the gas. As in oil refineries, many workers in the larger natural gas processing plants are employed in maintenance activities. However, the equipment in such plants is subject to less corrosion and wear than that in oil refineries, and it is generally more automated. As a result, the instrument re pairman and the electrician are two key workers needed to maintain the instruments that control the automatic equipment. The welder and his helper also do much maintenance work in the processing plant. Other workers, whose jobs in clude maintenance functions, are engine repair man and laborer. Clerical, administrative, professional, and tech nical workers are a smaller proportion of em ployment in the larger gas processing plants than in oil refineries. In the numerous smaller natural gas process ing plants, many workers have multiple skills— usually combining the skills of operator and maintenance man. In addition, there are many very small plants that are so highly automated that they are virtually unattended. Either they are checked by maintenance workers at periodic intervals, or they are continuously monitored by instruments which automatically report malfunc tions and shut down the plant if an emergency develops. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Information on occupational training, qualifica tions, and advancement in natural gas processing plants is similar to that for occupations in petroleum refining, discussed on page 729. 731 Employment Outlook Employment in natural gas processing plants is expected to show little or no change in the 1965-75 period, even though the demand for natural gas and natural gas liquids is expected to increase faster than for other petroleum pro ducts. Continued application of technological improvements in processing methods, which will lead to greater output per worker, is expected to about offset the effect of growing demand. Only a few thousand job openings are expected in these plants each year during the next 10 years. These will result from the need to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other in dustries. The greatest demand will be for work ers who can repair, rebuild, and maintain the highly automated plant equipment. Increasing numbers of technical trained employees, includ ing engineers, are being used on these jobs. Earnings and Working Conditions Production workers in natural gas processing plants, in early 1964, received wages that com pared very favorably with the average hourly wage of $2.53 for production workers in manu facturing industries. At a fairly typical mediumsize natural gas processing plant, starting hourly rates were as follows: Unskilled worker (laborer), $2.36; operator helper, $2.70; operator, $2.89; vehicle operator, $2.88; welder helper, $2.70; welder, $3; instrument man, $3.30; and electrician, $3.32. Generally, production workers in these plants received the same benefits, vacations, and shift differentials as workers in petroleum re fining. (See p. 730.) Most workers in natural gas processing plants and oil refineries have similar working conditions. Only a moderate amount of physical effort is in volved. Some workers are required to open and close valves, to climb stairs and ladders to con siderable heights, and to work 1 of 3 shifts. The plants are relatively safe places in which to work. The injury-frequency rate, in 1964, was about two-thirds that of manufacturing as a whole. Some workers in particular natural gas process ing plants have unusual working conditions. They are responsible for maintaining several small, unattended automated plants in widely separated, isolated locations. They make periodic 732 trips, of 1 or more days’ duration, to check these automated plants. They travel over rough, un paved terrain and are exposed to all kinds of weather. These maintenance jobs may be very satisfying to those who like working outdoors and alone. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Workers in many of the larger gas processing plants are union members. Many are members of the Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers Interna tional Union. Some have been organized by other unions affiliated with the AFL-CIO, and others are members of local, unaffiliated unions. OCCUPATIONS IN THE PULP, PAPER, AND ALLIED PRODUCTS INDUSTRY In 1965, the pulp, paper, and allied products industry (the paper industry) employed about 640,000 workers to produce thousands of paper products such as newsprint, business forms, facial tissue, building board, paper bags, writing paper, and paperboard containers and boxes. Consump tion of paper and paperboard in 1964 amounted to more than 475 pounds for each person in the nation. The industry employs workers in occupa tions ranging from unskilled to highly specialized technical and professional jobs, many of which are found only in the paper industry. About 130,000 women were employed in this industry in 1965. Most of them worked in plant jobs, mainly as machine operators and inspectors in paper finishing and converting plants; others were in office jobs. Few women were employed in the actual making of pulp or paper. Nature and Location of the Industry The paper industry is highly mechanized. Pulp and paper and many finished paper products are manufactured by machines—some as long as a football field—in a senes of nearly automatic operations, with very little handling of material by workers. Manufacturing plants in the paper industry are engaged in one or more of three different operations: The production of pulp (the basic ingredient of all paper) from wood, reused fibers, or other raw materials; the manu facture of paper or paperboard (thick paper) from pulp; or the conversion of rolls of paper or paperboard into finished products. Some large plants produce pulp, paper, and paperboard. A few very large plants also produce finished paper products. About 45 percent of the employees in the in dustry in 1965 worked in mills that made pulp, paper, or paperboard. The others were about equally divided between plants that made paper board boxes and other types of containers, and plants that produced a variety of other paper products. More than 90 percent of the pulp, paper, and paperboard employees and over 70 percent of the converting plant employees worked in factories employing over 100 workers each. Workers in this industry are located through out the country, although more than half are employed in eight States: New York, Pennsyl vania, Wisconsin, Ohio, Illinois, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and California. Other States with large numbers of paperworkers are Michigan, Minnesota, Georgia, Washington, Maine, Louisi ana, Florida, and North Carolina. Occupations in the Industry Workers in the paper industry are employed in a wide variety of occupations, requiring a broad range of training and skills. Many workers operate and control specialized papermaking, finishing, and converting machines. Some work ers install and repair equipment such as paper making machinery, converting equipment, motors, pumps, pipes, and measuring instru ments. Truck and tractor drivers make deliveries to and from plants, and other workers load and unload trucks, trains, and ships. Guards, watch men, and janitors do custodial work. Other work ers keep inventory records of stock and tools. The industry employs many workers in clerical, sales, and administrative occupations. For ex ample, it employs purchasing agents, personnel managers, salesmen, office clerks, stenographers, bookkeepers, and business machine operators. Also, because of the complex processes and equip ment used, the industry employs many people in professional and technical occupations such as chemical and mechanical engineers, chemists, laboratory technicians, pulp and paper testers, and inspectors. (Detailed discussions of pro 733 734 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK fessional, technical, and mechanical occupations found not only in the paper industry but in other industries, are given elsewhere in the Handbook in the sections covering individual occupations. See index for page numbers.) Production Jobs. Almost four-fifths of all em ployees in the industry worked in production jobs. The simplified description of papermaking occu pations and processes which follows, applies to a plant which combines the production of pulp, paper, and finished products into one continuous operation. (See chart 38.) I t takes between 12 and 15 hours, on on the average, for pulp wood or other raw materials to be converted into rolls of paper or paperboard. After the pulpwood logs are received at the pulp mill, the bark is removed. One machine used for this operation is a large revolving cylinder known as a “drum barker.” Logs are mechanically fed into this machine by a semiskilled worker called a barker operator. The machine cleans the bark from the logs by tumbling them against each other and against the rough inner surface of the drum. Next, the pulp fibers in the logs are sepa rated from other substances not used in papermak ing. This is done by a chemical or mechanical process, or a combination of both, depending on the type of wood used and the grade of paper desired. In the mechanical process, the pulpwood is held against a fast-revolving grindstone which separ ates the fibers. In the more commonly used chemical process, pulpwood is carried on conveyor belts to a chipper machine operated by a chipperman (D.O.T. 668.885). The machine cuts the pulpwood into chips about the size of a quarter. These wood chips are then “cooked” with chemicals under high temperature and pressure in a “digester,” a kettlelike vat several stories high. The digester is operated by a skilled worker called a digester operator (D.O.T. 532.782) (also known as a “cook”) . He determines the amount of chemicals to be used and the cooking tempera ture and pressure, directs the loading of the digester with wood chips and chemicals, and de termines, by checking an instrument panel, that proper conditions are being maintained. When the pulp fibers are removed from the digester, they are washed to remove chemicals, partially cooked chips, and other impurities. These fibers, called pulp, resemble wet, brown cotton. As a first step in turning pulp into paper, pulp is mixed thor oughly with water and further refined in a ma chine operated by a skilled worker called a beater engineer (D.O.T. 530.782). The kind and amount of chemicals and dyes that he uses and the length of time he “beats” the solution determines the color and strength of the paper. The pulp solution, now more than 99 percent water, is turned into paper or paperboard by machines that are among the largest in American industry. The machines are of two types. One is the Fourdrinier machine which is, by far, the most commonly used. The other is the cylinder machine used to make certain types of paper such CHART 38 THE PA P ER M A K IN G P R O C E S S ....... PULP, PAPER, AND ALLIED PRODUCTS INDUSTRY Screen tender operates controls while helper loosens lodged solids from screen openings. as building and container board. It differs from the Fourdrinier machines in the paperforming section. In the Fourdrinier, the pulp solution pours onto a continuously moving and vibrating belt of fine wire screen. As the water drains, mil lions of pulp fibers adhere to one another, form ing a thin wet sheet of paper. After passing through presses that squeeze out more water, the newly formed paper passes through the dryer section of the papermaking machine to evaporate the remaining water. Papermaking machines are operated by a paper machine operator (D.O.T. 539.782) (also called a “machine tender”). The quality of the paper produced largely depends on the skill of this worker. His principal responsi bility is to control the “wet-end” of the paper making machine, where paper of a specified thick ness, width, and physical strength is formed. He checks control-panel instruments to make certain that the flow of pulp and the speed of the machine are coordinated. The paper machine operator determines whether the paper meets the required specifications by interpreting laboratory tests or, in some instances, by visually checking and feeling the paper. He also supervises the less skilled workers of the machine crew and, with their help, keeps the paper moving smoothly through the machine. The paper machine operT78-316 O— 6 5 — — 48 735 ator and his crew may also replace worn felts and wire screens. The backtender (D.O.T. 532.885), who is supervised by the paper machine operator, controls the “dry-end” of the paper making machine, where the paper is dried and prepared either for shipping or converting into finished products. He controls the pressure and temperature of the rolls that dry and finish the paper and give it the correct thickness, inspects the paper for imperfections, and makes sure that it is being tightly and uniformly wound onto rolls. The backtender also adjusts the machinery that cuts the rolls into smaller rolls and, with the help of assistants, may weigh and wrap the rolls for shipment. Paper mills that produce a fine grade of paper for books, magazines, or stationary usually main tain finishing departments. Most of the work ers in these departments are either semiskilled or unskilled. One such semiskilled worker, called the supercalender operator (D.O.T. 534.782), aided by several helpers and by mechanical han dling equipment, places hugh rolls of paper onto a machine which gives the paper a smooth and glossy finish. He also inspects the finished paper to make sure that specifications have been met. Another semiskilled worker in the finishing department, the paper sorter and counter (D.O.T. 649.687), inspects sheets of paper for tears, dirt spots, and wrinkles, and counts them. Machine tender and helper regulate and control flow of pulp onto papermaking machine. 736 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK (paperboard with alternate ridges and grooves) which is used in the manufacture of shipping con tainers. Another of the few skilled workers in a converting plant is the printer-slotter operator (D.O.T. 651.782) who sets, adjusts, and operates a machine which cuts and creases corrugated or paperboard sheets, and prints designs or letter ing on them. He also positions the printing plates and cutting devices and turns keys to control the distribution of printing ink, pressure of rollers, and speed of the machine. Another skilled job is that of the die maker (D.O.T. 739.381) who makes cutting dies used on machines that pro duce folding cartons (the familiar collapsible cartons used by clothing stores to pack pur chases). Converting plants employ thousands of workers to print text, designs, and lettering on paperproducts such as cartons, bags, wallpaper, and envelopes. Among these are skilled compositors who set type, and pressmen who prepare and op erate printing presses. Women are frequently employed as carton inspectors. In converting plants, machines operated by semiskilled or skilled workers convert paper and paperboard into paper products such as envel opes, napkins, corrugated shipping containers, and folding or setup boxes. Occupations in con verting plants differ widely, depending largely on the product being manufactured. An example of a semiskilled wTorker in an envelope-making plant is the envelope machine operator (D.O.T. 641.885) who feels and tends an automatic ma chine that makes envelopes from either rolls of paper or prepared envelope blanks. He loads the rolls or blanks into the machine and supplies the machine with glue. An example of a skilled worker in a converting plant is the corrugator operator (D.O.T. 643.782) who regulates the speed of the machine that glues together three pieces of paperboard into corrugated paperboard Maintenance Jobs. The paper industry employs many skilled maintenance workers to care for its complex machinery and electrical equipment. Millwrights maintain, install, and repair ma chinery and equipment and examine paper machine rolls, bearings, and pumps to insure that they are in good working condition. They also take apart and reassemble machines and equip ment when they are moved about the plant. Instrument repairmen install and service electri cal, electronic, and mechanical instruments that measure and control the flow of pulp, paper, water, steam, and chemical additives. The job of instrument repairman is becoming increasingly important with the greater use of automatic control equipment in pulp and paper manufac turing. Other important maintenance employees are electricians, who repair wiring, motors, and switches; maintenance machinists, who make replacement parts for mechanical equipment; and pipefitters, who lay out, install, and repair pipes. Stationary engineers are employed to operate and maintain powerplants, steam engines, boilers, air compressors, motors, and turbines. Professional and Technical Occupations. The complexity of pulp and paper manufacturing PULP, PAPER, AND ALLIED PRODUCTS INDUSTRY requires the employment of thousands of workers with engineering, chemical, or other technical training and education. More than 12,000 scien tists and engineers and 6,000 technicians were employed by the paper industry in early 1965. Many chemists are employed to control the quality of the product by supervising the testing of pulp and paper. In research laboratories, chemists study the influence of various chemicals on pulp and paper properties. In addition, some chemists and engineers are employed as salesmen, supervisors of plant workers, or as administra tors in positions requiring technical knowledge. Chemical and mechanical engineers design, con struct, operate, control, and improve pulp and papermaking equipment. They transform new pulp and papermaking techniques, developed in the laboratory, into practical production methods. Some chemical engineers are employed in plant jobs to supervise the application of pulp and paper technology to the production process. Electrical engineers are employed to supervise the design, development, and operation of elec trical and electronic instruments and power generating and distributing equipment. Packaging engineers (D.O.T. 019.187) design and supervise the production of paper and paperboard containers and packages. A few box manu facturers also employ artists who work out the lettering, designs, and colors for containers. Professionally trained foresters manage large areas of timberland and assist in the wood-buying operations of pulp and paper companies. Frequent tests are performed during the manu facturing of pulp or paper to determine whether the size, weight, strength, color, and other prop erties of the material meet specified standards. Some of this testing is done by machine operators, but in many mills, testing technicians are em ployed. These employees, who have job titles such as laboratory technician, 'paper tester, pulp tester, paper inspector, and chemical analyst, work in plant laboratories. They use chemicals and laboratory testing equipment when performing tests. They also assist professional engineers and chemists in research and development activities. Depending on their training and experience, tech nicians perform simple, routine tests, or do highly skilled technical or analytical work. Technicians working in laboratories conduct tests and record 737 the results on charts or graphs for interpretation by engineers and chemists. Laboratory technician runs quality control checks on paper products. Administrative, Clerical, and Related Occupa tions. The paper industry employs many admin istrative, clerical, and other office personnel. At the top of the administrative group are the execu tives who make and administer company policy. Many of these are technically trained men. To do their work effectively, executives require infor mation that must come from a large group of personnel. Some are accountants, purchasing agents, sales representatives, lawyers, and per sonnel employed in such activities as industrial relations, public relations, transportation, adver tising, and market research. Clerical employees who keep records of personnel, payroll, inven tories, sales, shipments, and plant maintenance are also employed in this industry. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The training for new workers in the pulp, paper, and allied products industry ranges from 738 a few days to years of preparation. Many operat ing jobs can be learned in a few days of on-the-job training. On the other hand, maintenance jobs, some machine operating jobs, and, particularly, engineering and scientific jobs require years of specialized training. Paper and pulp companies generally hire inex perienced workers for processing and mainte nance jobs and train them on the job. Many com panies prefer to hire high school graduates between the ages of 18 and 25. Production work ers usually start as laborers or helpers and ad vance along fairly well-defined paths to more skilled jobs. Maintenance jobs generally are filled by men trained in the plant. When no qualified workers are available, however, jobs are filled by hiring experienced men from outside the plant. Most companies in this industry do not have formal apprenticeship programs to meet the needs of their own maintenance shops. In recent years, however, some of the large plants that make pulp, paper, and paperboard have started formal ap prenticeship programs which require 3 to 4 or more years of training. Under these programs, young men are trained for skilled maintenance jobs such as machinist, electrician, millwright, and pipefitter. Generally, an applicant is given a physical examination, mechanical aptitude tests, and similar qualifying tests. Apprentice training includes both on-the-job training and classroom instruction related to the occupation. For example, the machinist apprentice receives class room instruction in mathematics, blueprint read ing, shop theory, and specialized subjects. During shop training, the apprentice learns the use and care of the tools of his trade. A bachelor’s degree from a recognized college is usually the minimum educational requirement for scientists, engineers, foresters, and other spe cialists employed by the industry. For research work, persons with advanced degrees are pre ferred. Many engineers and chemists (called process engineers and paper chemists) have spe cialized training in paper technology. A listing of the schools offering such training is available from the American Paper Institute, 122 East 42d St., New York, N.Y. 10017. Many companies hire students specializing in papermaking for summer work and upon graduation frequently OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK hire them on a permanent basis. Some associa tions, colleges, universities, and individual com panies offer scholarships in pulp and papermak ing technology. Some companies have formal training pro grams for college graduates with engineering or scientific backgrounds. These employees may work for brief periods in various plant operating divisions to gain a broad knowledge of pulp and paper manufacturing before being assigned to a particular department. Other firms immediately assign junior chemists or engineers to a specific research operation or maintenance unit. Generally, no specialized education is required for laboratory assistants, testing technicians, or other kinds of technicians. Some employers, how ever, prefer to hire those who have had training in a technical institute or junior college. Train ing, usually, is on the job. Laboratory assistants, for example, begin in routine jobs and advance to positions of greater responsibility after they have acquired experience and demonstrated their ability to work without close supervision. Administrative positions are frequently filled by men and women who have college degrees in business administration, marketing, accounting, industrial relations, or other specialized business fields. A knowledge of paper technology is help ful for administrative, sales, and related occupa tions. This is especially true of sales jobs where customers often require technical assistance. Most pulp and paper companies employ clerks, book keepers, stenographers, and typists who have had commercial courses in high school or in busi ness school. Factors affecting advancement of plant work ers include the length of time that a worker has held a plant job, how well he performs his job, and his physical condition. Promotion is generally limited to jobs within a “work area,” which may be a department, section, or an opera tion on one type of machine. To become a paper machine tender, for example, the worker may start as a laborer, wrapping and sealing the finished rolls of paper as they come off the paper making machine. As he gains experience and skill, he moves to more difficult assignments, finally becoming a machine tender in charge of the operation of a machine. These promotions may take many years, depending on the avail 739 PULP, PAPER, AND ALLIED PRODUCTS INDUSTRY ability of jobs. Experience gained within a work area is generally not transferable; unskilled or semiskilled workers who transfer to jobs outside their seniority area or to other plants usually must start again in entry jobs. Many plant foremen and supervisors are former production workers. In some plants, qualified workers may be promoted directly to foreman or other supervisory positions. In others, workers are given training before they are eligible for promotion to higher level jobs. This training is often continued after the worker is promoted— through conferences, special plant training ses sions, and sometimes by taking courses at univer sities or trade schools. Employment Outlook Young people will find many thousands of job openings annually over the 1965-75 decade in the pulp, paper, and allied products industry. Al though employment is expected to increase by several thousand workers each year, most job op portunities will result from the need to replace experienced workers who retire, transfer to other fields of work, or die. Deaths and retirements alone are expected to provide about 15,000 job openings annually. Employment in this industry is expected to con tinue to grow fastest in the South and West. Em ployment prospects, however, will remain good in the Northeast and North Central areas, which have large numbers of paperworkers, because of the need to replace experienced workers. The production of paper is expected to increase as a result of the increased demand resulting from population growth, business expansion, and new uses of paper. For example, rising population will create a greater demand for textbooks, writing papers, periodicals, and newspapers. Business expansion will increase the need for paper prod ucts such as business forms and packaging. The greater use of paper products such as disposable garments, stretchable grocery bags, carpet back ing, and refuse bags is also expected to stimulate paper production. Employement will increase at a slower rate than production, however, because of the increasing use of more efficient, labor-saving machinery and automatic control equipment. Occupational groups in the industry are ex pected to increase at different rates. The numbers of engineers, scientists, technicians, and skilled workers, such as electricians, machinery repair men, instrument repairmen, pipefitters, and mill wrights, are expected to increase faster than other occupational groups in the industry. Sci entific and technical personnel will be needed as research and development activities increase and more skilled maintenance and repair men will be required to service the growing inventory of complex machinery. The employment of admin istrative and clerical workers is also expected to increase at a faster pace than total employment. On the other hand, employment of semiskilled workers and helpers, laborers, and other unskilled plant workers is expected to remain about the same or decline slightly as more automatic machinery is introduced. Earnings and Working Conditions Production workers in the paper and allied products industry had average earnings of $2.66 an hour, or $114.38 for a 43.0 hour workweek, in mid-1965. In the same year, earnings of produc tion workers in all manufacturing industries aver aged $2.61 an hour, or $107.01 for a 41.0 hour workweek. Highly skilled paper machine operators and many of the skilled maintenance workers have the highest paying plant jobs. In 1964, some skilled paper machine tenders earned more than $4.50 an hour, and many maintenance workers received more than $3.50. The following data, collected from more than a score of union-management agreements in the paper industry, illustrate the approximate range of hourly wage rates for selected production and maintenance occupations for the country as a whole in 1964. Local wage rates within these ranges depend on factors such as type and size of mill and kind of machines used. P u lp p la n ts Woodyard and wood preparation occupa tions : Crane operator_____________________ Barker, drum______________________ Chipperman_______________________ Pulpmaking occupations: Digester operator (cook)____________ Grinderman________________________ Screenman_________________________ Bleacherman_______________________ Pulp tester________________________ H ou rly rate ranges $2. 10-$3. 42 2. 12- 2. 62 1. 72- 2. 95 2. 042. 932. 101. 911. 97- 4. 3. 3. 4. 2. 54 51 62 53 82 740 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK A work schedule of 40 hours a week is in effect in most mills. A few plants in the industry have H ou rly rate ranges a standard workweek of 36 hours or less. $2. 47-$4. 12 Paid vacations are almost always provided and 2. 1 0 -2 . 92 generally are based on length of service. In prac 2. 18- 2. 40 tically all mills, workers receive 1 week of vaca tion after 1 year of employment, 2 weeks after 3 2. 64— 5. 70 2. 42- 5. 37 to 5 years, and 3 weeks after 10 or more years. 2. 29- 4. 27 Many companies give 4 weeks’ vacation to em 2. 12- 3. 65 ployees who have been with them 20 years. Nearly 2. 26- 3. 12 all workers receive paid holidays; the number of days range from 4 to 11 a year, with most mills 2. 26- 2. 81 granting 7 or 8 paid holidays. 1. 76- 2.89 2. 09- 2. 52 Insurance or pension plans, financed at least 1. 86- 3.04 partially by employers, are in effect in the major ity of plants. These plans generally include life, Converting plan ts sickness, accident, hospitalization, and surgical Converting occupations: insurance benefits for the employee and, in some Envelope machine operator_________ 1. 33- 2. 55 cases, his dependents. Employee stock-purchase Corrugator operator------------------------1. 90- 3. 07 and savings plans to which the company makes Printer-slotter operator_____________ 1. 85- 3. 07 Die maker_________________________ 2. 42- 3. 70 contributions are in effect in some firms. Compositor________________________ 1. 86- 3. 72 Most pulp and papermaking jobs do not require Pressmen (printing)________________ 1. 87- 5. 26 strenuous physical effort. Some employees, how M iscellaneous occupations ever, work in hot, humid, and noisy areas. They may also be exposed to disagreeable odors from Maintenance occupations: Maintenance mechanic (also millwright, the chemicals used in the papermaking process, welder, pipesetter, sheet-metal work but the pulp and paper companies have made er, machinist, blacksmith, and intensive efforts in recent years to improve work boilerm aker)__ __ _ ___________ 2 .0 6 - 3. 78 ing conditions. Painter ----___________ 1. 86- 3. 62 The rate of disabling injuries in this industry Carpenter ___________ 2. 01- 3. 78 in recent years has been about the same as the ___________ 2. 11- 3. 86 Electrician Other: average for all manufacturing. Protective cloth Oiler ___________ 1. 83- 3. 25 ing, warning signs in danger areas, locking devices Trucker, power ___________ 1. 60- 2. 87 on potentially dangerous equipment, guards and rails around moving machinery, and instruction Most of the workers in pulp and paper proin safe practices have been important in reducing ducing operations work in plants that operate the accident rate. Some of the more hazardous jobs are in converting plants where many cutting around the clock—three shifts a day, 7 days a week. Owing to the widespread industry prac tools and moving equipment are used. tice of rotating shifts, production workers can A majority of the production workers in this expect to work on the evening or night shifts industry are members of trade unions. A large number belong to either the International from time to time. Maintenance workers, for the most part, are employed on the regular day shift. Brotherhood of Pulp, Sulphite and Paper Mill Many plants pay between 5 and 11 cents an hour Workers or the United Papermakers and Papermore for work on the evening shift and between workers. Many printing workers in the industry belong to the International Printing Pressmen 9 and 15 cents an hour extra for the night shift. and Assistants’ Union of North America. Some Most workers in the industry have year-round maintenance workers and other craftsmen belong employment because paper production is not sub ject to seasonal variations. to various craft unions. P aper and paperboard pla n ts Stock preparation occupations: Head stock preparer (beater engineer)________________________ Beaterman_________________________ Hydrapulper operator---------------------Machine room occupations: Paper machine tender----------------------Backtender________________________ Third hand________________________ Fourth hand_______________________ Paper tester-----------------------------------Finishing occupations: Supercalendar operator_____________ Re winder operator____________________ Rewinder helper____________________ Cutters______________________________ 741 PULP, PAPER, AND ALLIED PRODUCTS INDUSTRY Where To G o for More Information American Forest Products Industries, 1816 N St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. American Paper Institute, 122 East 42d St., New York, N.Y. 10017. Fibre Box Association, 224 South Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60601. Folding Paper Box Association of America, 222 West Adams St., Chicago, 111. 60606. International Brotherhood of Pulp, Sulphite and Paper Mill Workers, 1145 19th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. United Papermakers and Paperworkers, Papermakers Building, Albany, N.Y. 12201. RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING OCCUPATIONS The glamour and excitement associated with radio and television make careers in broadcasting attractive to many young people. The electronic technology involved in transmitting programs and the business aspects of operating a broadcasting station or network are also attractions. In early 1965, there were more than 80,000 full-time and about 18,000 part-time staff employees in com mercial broadcasting; altogether, over 55 percent were employed in radio. Staff employees work for a broadcasting station or network on a regularly scheduled and continuous basis. In addition to staff employees, many thousands of freelance performers, such as actors, musicians, dancers, comedians, and top-level announcers, work on specific assignments from stations, net works, and other program producers. (Several thousand other employees worked for independent program producers in activities closely related to broadcasting, such as the preparation of filmed and taped programs and commercials for broad casting.) Broadcasting stations offer a variety of interest ing jobs in all parts of the country. Opportunities for entry jobs are best at stations in small com munities Generally, the most specialized and best paying jobs are in large cities, especially those with national network stations. Nevertheless, the talented individual will have many opportunities to advance to good paying jobs in stations located in smaller communities. Nature and Location of the Industry In the early 1965, more than 5,000 commercial radio stations were in operation in the United States. About 4,000 of these were AM stations (broadcasting on frequencies between 540 and 1,600 kilocycles), and close to 300 were FM-only stations (broadcasting on frequencies between 88 and 108 megacycles). About 850 stations have licenses for both AM and FM operations. 742 More than 580 commercial television stations were in operation in early 1965. Most of these were VHF stations which broadcast on channels 2 through 13; about 90 were U H F stations which broadcast on channels 14 through 83. U H F sta tions generally employ fewer workers than VHF stations. Most commercial broadcasting stations are small independent businesses. In early 1965, over half of all radio stations had fewer than 10 full-time employees each, and fewer than 10 percent of all radio stations had more than 25 full-time em ployees per station. FM-only stations usually employed about three full-time and about five part-time workers each. Most television stations had fewer than 50 full-time workers, although several of the largest employed more than 200 workers each. Commercial radio stations are served by 4 na tionwide networks, and more than 80 regional networks. Stations can affiliate with networks by agreeing to broadcast their programs on a regular basis. National radio networks have affiliated stations in almost every large metropolitan area, although only a minority of all radio stations are affiliated with national networks. Regional radio networks have fewer affiliated stations and their activities usually consist of arranging for the sale of advertising time, and interconnecting member stations for special events such as baseball and football games. Regional networks have few full time employees because their programing is con ducted by staff employees of the affiliated stations. The four national radio networks together em ployed over 1,000 workers in early 1965. Most television stations depend on one or more of the three national television networks for pro grams that would be too expensive for individual stations to originate—for example, sports events such as world series baseball games or interna tional Olympic contests; broadcasts of operas, plays, and musicals; and newscasts of national 743 RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING and international significance. These networks, in turn, can offer national coverage to advertisers. Since some small cities have only one or two tele vision stations, these stations often arrange to carry the programs of two or three networks in order to offer their viewers a wider variety of programs. Many network television programs are broadcast simultaneously over more than 150 sta tions throughout the Nation. In early 1965, the three television networks employed 10,000 work ers, or 1 of every 5 staff employees in television. Almost every community of over 10,000 popula tion has at least 1 broadcasting station (usually radio) and a few of the largest cities have more than 20. However, one-third of all radio stations are located in communities of less than 10,000 and most of these are in one-station communities. Gen erally, television stations are located in communi ties of more than 25,000 population. Seventy percent of all television stations are in communi ties of 100,000 or more. In contrast, over 60 per cent of all radio stations are in communities of less than 100,000 population. Practically all large broadcasting stations are located in metropolitan areas, but small stations are found in big cities as well as small communi ties. About one-fourth of all broadcasting jobs are in New York and California because New York City and Los Angeles are the two major centers for network programs. Other large and heavily populated States, such as Illinois, Texas, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, also have many broad casting workers because of the large number of individual stations. In addition to commercial broadcasting stations, in early 1965, there were about 300 noncommercial radio stations (mainly FM), and over 100 non commercial television stations, both VHF and UHF. These stations are operated by nonprofit organizations, principally educational agencies such as State commissions; local boards of educa tion; colleges and universities; and special com munity educational television organizations. Rela tively few full-time staff members were employed in noncommercial radio stations (about 1,400) and in noncommercial television stations (about 2,600), because instructors and students often help to operate many of these stations. Broadcasting Occupations Employees of broadcasting stations generally specialize in 1 of 4 major areas of work, although there may be considerable “doubling in brass” in small stations. Those concerned with programing prepare and produce programs; engineering workers operate and maintain the equipment that converts sounds and pictures into electronic im pulses that can be picked up on home receivers; sales workers sell time to advertisers and develop publicity and promotional material for the station. The remaining employees handle general business matters, such as accounting, payroll, public rela tions, personnel administration, and the clerical work related to all the station’s activities. More than 40 percent of all full-time staff em ployees are in programing work. Personnel in the engineering department make up over 20 percent of staff employment. Workers in the sales, publicity, and promotion departments account for about 15 percent, and the remaining workers— about 25 percent—are engaged in business man agement. These proportions vary widely among individual stations, depending on station size and type of programing. Job duties vary greatly between small and large stations. In small radio stations, a large proportion of broadcast time consists of recorded music and weather and news announcements. As a result, small stations employ only a few work ers, each of whom performs a variety of tasks. The station manager, who frequently is also the owner, may act as business and sales manager, or perhaps as program director, announcer, and script writer. Announcers in small stations usually do their own writing, often operate the studio control board, and may even act as sales men. The engineering staff may consist of only one full-time broadcast technician assisted by workers from the other departments on a parttime basis. Small low-powered stations, which do not use a directional antenna, may employ a chief engineer on a part-time contract basis, sharing his services with similar stations in the community. In large radio and television stations, jobs are more specialized and are usually con fined to 1 of the 4 departments. The kinds of jobs found in each of these departments are described below. 744 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Television cameraman films scene for broadcast. Programing Department. The programing de partment plans, prepares, and produces radio and television programs. Staff employees plan the station’s programing, produce the daily and weekly shows, assign personnel to cover special events, and provide general program services such as music, sound effects, and lighting. In addition to these staff employees, freelance actors, comedians, singers, dancers, some well-known announcers, and other entertainers are hired for specific broadcasts or series of broadcasts or for special assignments. These performers work on a contract basis for the station, network, adver tising agency, sponsor, or an independent com pany specializing in producing programs. Many radio and television entertainers also perform in stage plays, motion pictures, nightclubs, or other entertainment media. The size of a station’s programing department depends not only on the size of the station, but also on the extent to which its broadcasts are live, recorded, or received from a network. In small stations, the program functions are han dled by a few people who make commercial an nouncements, read news and sports summaries, select and play recordings, and introduce network programs. A large television station, on the other hand, may have a program staff consisting of more than 75 people in a wide variety of spe cialized jobs. Responsibility for the overall program sched ule of a large station rests with a program direc tor. He arranges for a combination of programs that he believes will be most effective in meeting the needs of advertisers who buy the station’s services and will at the same time be most attrac tive and interesting to members of the com munity served by the station. He determines and administers the station’s programing policy. Daily schedule of programs are prepared by a traffic manager, who also keeps a record of broadcasting time available for advertising. A continuity director is responsible for the writing and editing of all scripts. He may be assisted by a continuity writer, who prepares Announcers' Books. These books contain the script and com mercials for each program along with their sequence and length. Individual programs or series of programs are planned and supervised by a director. In large stations, he may work under the supervision of a producer, who assumes responsibility for selection of scripts, financial control, and other overall problems of production. Sometimes these func tions are combined in the job of producer-director. The director’s major functions include, selecting appropriate artists and studio personnel, sched uling and conducting rehearsals, coordinating the efforts of all the people involved in the show to produce effective entertainment, and directing the on-the-air show. He may be assisted by an associate director, who takes over such tasks as working out detailed schedules and plans, arrang ing for distribution of scripts and changes in scripts to the cast, and assisting in directing the on-the-air show. Some stations employ program assistants to aid in carrying out the orders of the director and his assistants. The assistants help assemble and coordinate the various parts of the show. They arrange for obtaining props, make up service, art work, and film slides. They assist in timing the on-the-air show, preparing cue cards from the scripts and using them to cue the per formers. Education and public affairs directors act as a link between the station and schools, churches, and civic and charitable institutions. They supervise and edit most noncommercial programs. RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING Announcers are the largest and best known group of program workers. In radio and tele vision stations of all sizes, the announcer intro duces programs, guests, and musical selections, and delivers most of the live commercial mes sages. (Further information on broadcast an nouncers is given later in this chapter.) Music is an important part of radio and tele vision programing. Both small and large stations use recordings and transcriptions to provide musical programs and background music for other shows. Large stations, which have extensive music libraries, sometimes employ a music librarian, who maintains the music files and answers requests for any particular selection or type of music. In addition to recorded music, a few of the largest stations have specialized per sonnel who plan and. arrange for musical services. The musical director selects, arranges, and directs suitable music for programs on general instruc tions from the program director. He selects musicians for live broadcasts and directs them during rehearsals and broadcasts. Musicians are generally hired for particular assignments on a freelance basis, although a few stations employ staff musicians full-time. News gathering and reporting is an increas ingly important aspect of radio and television programing. In addition to daily coverage of the news, sports, weather, and, in rural areas, farm reports, the news department also presents special programs covering such events as conventions, elections, and disasters. The news director plans and supervises the overall news and special events coverage of a station. A newscaster broadcasts daily news programs, and reports special news events on the scene. A newswriter selects and writes news copy to be read on the air by the newscasters. In small stations the jobs of news caster and newswriter are frequently combined. Stations that originate live television shows must have staff members capable of handling staging jobs since staging a television show is similar in many ways to producing a profes sional stage play. The studio supervisor plans and supervises the setting up of scenery and props and other studio and stage equipment for broadcasts. The floor or stage manager plans and directs the actors’ positions and movements on the set in accordance with the director’s instruc 745 tions by relaying stage directions, station breaks, and cues. The jobs of studio supervisor and floor manager are often combined. Floorm^en set up props, hold cue cards, and do the unskilled chores around the studio. (This job is frequently held by a beginner in the programing department.) Makeup artists prepare personnel for broadcasts by applying proper makeup, and maintain the supplies and facilities necessary for this work. Scenic designers plan and design settings and backgrounds for programs. They select furniture, draperies, pictures, and other properties to help convey the visual impressions desired by the di rector. Sound effects technicians operate special equipment to simulate sounds, such as gunfire, thunder, or falling water, during rehearsals and broadcasts. In 1964, almost half of all television pro graming was on film, over one-quarter was live, and the remainder was recorded on magnetic video tape. Video tape recording is done by broadcast technicians on electronic equipment that permits instantaneous playback of a tele vision performance. I t can be used either to record a live show being broadcast or to prere cord a program for future broadcast. For filmed programs, the role of the station’s programing staff is limited to editing the film and timing and scheduling the show. Many stations employ specialized staff members to take care of filmed program material. The film editor edits all film and prepares it for on-the-air presentation. This includes screening all films received as well as cutting and splicing feature films to insert com mercials. He also edits all locally produced film. The film librarian catalogs and maintains the station’s files of motion picture film, which in clude not only complete programs, but many short sequences that can be fitted into programs to create effects which are difficult to produce in the studio, such as outdoor action. Engineering Department. The engineering de partment of a broadcasting station is respon sible for converting the sounds and pictures making up programs into electromagnetic im pulses that can be received on home radio and television sets. The main tasks of the engineering staff are placing microphones, adjusting levels of sound, keeping transmitters operating properly, 746 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK sign and develop new electronic apparatus to meet special problems. Editor prepares film for television presentation. moving and adjusting television cameras to pro duce clear, well-composed pictures, and lighting television scenes and performers. The staff also installs, maintains, and repairs the many types of electrical and electronic equipment required for these operations. The basic job in the engineering department is that of the broadcast technician who is quali fied to perform a variety of jobs in the radio or television station. For example, these technicians control the operation of the transmitter to keep the output level and frequency of the outgoing broadcast within legal requirements. They also set up, operate, and maintain equipment in the studio and in locations from which remote broad casts are to be made. (Further information on broadcast technicians is given later in this chapter.) All stations employ a chief engineer, who has responsibility for all engineering matters, includ ing supervision of other technicians. In small stations, he may also work a regular shift at the control board. The large stations have engineers who specialize in such fields as sound recording, maintenance, and lighting. A few development engineers are employed by the networks to de Sales Department. Broadcasting stations earn their income by selling services to advertisers. These services consist of the time on the air that is allotted to the advertisers’ commercials. Ad vertisers may buy time as part of a regular daily or weekly show with which they wish to identify their product, or they may simply buy a time segment or “spot” without special reference to the program being broadcast. Time salesman, the largest group of workers in this department, sell time on the air to spon sors, advertising agencies, and other buyers. They must have a thorough knowledge of the station’s operations and the characteristics of the area it serves that are of most interest to advertisers, such as population, number of radio and television sets in use, income levels, and consumption patterns. Time salesmen in large stations often maintain close relationships with Technician removes video tape from machine. RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING particular sponsors and advertising agencies, sell ing time and acting as general consultants and advisers to these clients in matters pertaining to advertising through the station. In very small stations, the time salesman may also handle other functions. Many stations sell a substantial part of their time, particularly to national advertisers, through independent sales agencies known as station representatives, which act as intermedi aries for time buyers and stations or groups of stations. Large stations generally have several workers who do only sales work. The sales manager supervises his staff of time salesmen, directing their efforts and setting general sales policy. He may also handle a few of the largest accounts personally. Some large stations employ statis tical clerks and research personnel to assist the sales staff by analyzing and reporting market data relating to the community served, the signifi cance of the ratings of the station’s programs reported by the rating services, and other sta tistical information. Business Management. Like other businesses, broadcasting stations have a considerable amount of administrative work. In a very small station, the owner and his secretary may handle all the recordkeeping, accounting, purchasing, hiring, and other routine office work. Where the size of the station warrants the employment of full-time specialists, the business staff may include account ants, publicity specialists, personnel workers, and other professional workers. They are assisted by office workers such as stenographers, typists, book keepers, clerks, and messengers. Building main tenance men are employed to keep the facilities in good condition. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A high school diploma is the minimum educa tional requirement for entry jobs in broadcast ing, although for many jobs some college train ing is increasingly preferred. A liberal arts education is a good qualification for the beginner because broadcasting needs broadly educated peo ple with knowledge and interests in many areas. Work in television programing for networks and large independent stations generally requires a 747 college degree in drama or broadcasting, and some experience in the broadcasting field. Training in specialized areas such as writing, public speaking, dramatics, designing, makeup, or electronics may be required of beginners in these areas even though work experience usually is not necessary. Some young people without special ized training or experience get their start in broadcasting in such jobs as clerk, typist, floorman, or assistant to an experienced worker. As these new workers gain knowledge and experience, they have the chance to advance to more responsi ble jobs. Young people are sometimes hired on the basis of their potentialities rather than for any specific training or experience, but the more skills, education, and varied background these beginners have, the better will be their chances for advancement. A few young people get started in broadcasting with temporary jobs in the summer when regular workers go on vacations and broadcast schedules of day-light-hours sta tions are increased. Technical training in electronics is required for entry jobs in engineering departments. In addition, anyone who operates or adjusts a broad cast transmitter must have a Federal Communi cations Commission Badiotelephone First Class Operator License. To obtain this license, an applicant must pass a series of technical exami nations given by the Federal Communications Commission. Small radio stations with only a few employees sometimes prefer to have as many personnel as possible legally qualified to operate their transmitters. Because of this, nontechnicians, especially announcers, will have a better chance of getting a job in radio if they have a first class license. A course in electronics at a recognized technical institute is probably the best way to prepare for the FCC test. Specific training or experience is usually not required for entry jobs as announcers in small stations, but applicants must have a good voice, a broad cultural background, and other character istics that make them dramatic or attractive personalities. Qualifications for administrative and sales jobs in broadcasting are similar to those required by other employers; a business course of study in high school or college is good preparation for such jobs. 748 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Most beginners start out in small stations. Although these stations cannot pay high salaries, they offer new workers opportunities to learn many different phases of broadcasting work be cause they generally use their personnel in “com bination” jobs. For example, in addition to his regular duties, an announcer may perform some of the duties of a broadcast technician. Women make up about a fourth of broadcast ing staff employment. They .are seldom employed as technicians, announcers, or salesmen, but fre quently work as production assistants, producers, newswriters, continuity writers, casting direc tors, costume or set designers, supervisors of religious and children’s programs, as well as in the many office occupations often filled by women. A job as secretary is frequently a good entry job for women interested in the program ing and administrative areas of broadcasting. People in the engineering department tend to remain in this area of work, where thorough training in electronics is essential. Program employees usually remain in programing work, although sometimes transfers from and to the sales and business services departments are made. Transfers are easier between sales and admin istrative departments because of their close work ing relationship; in fact, in the small stations, they are often merged into one department. Al though transfers of experienced workers between departments are limited to the extent noted, these distinctions are less important in the be ginning jobs and also in the top-level jobs. At the higher levels, a station executive may be drawn from top-level personnel of any depart ment. Many top-level administrative jobs are filled by people with sales experience. Although many new stations are expected to be established during the 1965-75 decade, most will be small and require few employees. In existing radio stations, employment may decline slightly as many stations introduce equip ment that allows for control of transmitters from the studio, and thus eliminates the need for a technical crew at the transmitter site. Automatic programing, another relatively recent technical advance, will also reduce employment require ments because it permits radio stations to provide unattended programing service. In existing tele vision stations, employment probably will remain about the same. The trend away from live net work television programing to the filmed and video taped presentations prepared by inde pendent producers is expected to reduce network employment and increase employment by the independent producers. The effect of increased color television broadcasting will be limited to a small expansion in the number of technical workers. The number of educational television stations is expected to increase rapidly in the next few years because recent Federal legislation provides finan cial aid for construction of this type of noncom mercial station. The growth of educational tele vision stations should provide an increasing num ber of job opportunities, especially in program ing, engineering, and station management. Competition will be very keen for entry jobs in broadcasting in the years ahead, especially in the large cities, because of the attraction this field has for young people and the relatively few beginning jobs that will be available. Employment Outlook Earnings and Working Conditions Several thousand job opportunities are expected to be available annually in the broadcasting in dustry during the 1965-75 decade. Approximately 1,000 of these openings are expected to result from the growth of the industry. In addition, a few thousand openings may occur each year because of retirements, deaths, and transfers of experienced workers to other lines of work. Retire ments and deaths alone are expected to provide about 2,000 openings annually. In late 1964, earnings of broadcasting workers ranged from about $50 a week for beginning clerical workers in small stations to more than $15,000 a year for established and highly skilled announcers, engineers, directors, and time sales men in large stations. The following table of weekly earnings, based on a survey of commercial stations by a private organization, presents na tional averages for common broadcasting occupa tions. 749 RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING A v er a g e C G r o ss o m m e r c ia l O c c u p a tio n B W T e le v is io n R a d io $305 226 214 200 183 164 145 133 $190 126 130 134 121 106 S a le s m a n a g e r ,. C h ie f e n g in e e r _____ P r o g r a m d ir e c to r .— S a le s m a n ___________ N e w s d ir e c to r ______ S ta ff a n n o u n c e r ____ P r o d u c e r -d ir e c to r ... E e e k l y r o a d c a s t in g 105 a r n in g s O S fo r c c u p a t io n s O c c u p a tio n A r t d ir e c to r ________ F i lm d e p a r tm e n t h ea d . S ta ff p h o to g r a p h e r C a m e r a m a n ________ T ra ffic m a n a g e r ____ C o n t in u ity w r it e r .. F lo o r m a n . . , L elec ted a t e T e le v is io n 1964 R a d io $127 123 117 117 95 92 83 $75 73 Employees in large cities earn much more than those in the same kinds of jobs in small towns. Wages are higher in large stations than in small stations and higher in television than in radio. Working conditions in broadcasting stations are usually pleasant. The work is done in clean, attractive surroundings. It is performed indoors except where remote pickups are involved. Jobs in programing are particularly attractive to young people interested in the performing arts, both because of the glamour attached to this field of work and the opportunities it affords for high earnings and artistic expression. Most broadcasting employees have a sched uled 40-hour workweek. Sales and business serv ices workers generally work in the daytime hours common to most office jobs. However, program and engineering employees must work shifts which may include evenings, nights, weekends, and holidays. In order to meet a broadcast dead line, program and technical employees in the net works may have to work continuously for many hours and under great pressure. Some employ ees, particularly in the small stations, regularly work 42- to 48-hour weeks. Many unions operate in the broadcasting field. They are most active in the network centers and large stations in metropolitan areas. The National Association of Broadcast Employees and Technicians and the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers both organize all kinds of broadcasting workers, although most of their members are technicians. The International Alli ance of Theatrical Stage Employees and Moving Picture Machine Operators organizes various crafts, such as stagehands, sound and lighting technicians, wardrobe attendants, makeup men, and cameramen. Many announcers and enter tainers are members of the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists. The Directors Guild of America, Inc. (Ind.) organizes pro gram directors, associate directors, and stage managers. The Screen Actors Guild Inc., repre sents the majority of talent personnel who appear on films made for television. Lighting technician directs and controls set illumination (or television shows. Radio and Television Announcers (2d ed. D.O.' L\ 0-69.21) (3d ed. D.O.'i \ 159.148) Nature of Work Radio and television staff announcers present news and live commercial messages, introduce programs, describe sporting events, act as masters of ceremonies, conduct interviews, and identify stations. In small stations, they may perform additional duties such as operating the con trol board, selling time, and writing scripts and 750 news copy. In large stations, their duties are confined to the programing department. Many announcers act as disc jockeys, intro ducing selections of recorded music and com menting on the music and other matters of inter est to the audience. Disc jockeys “ad-lib” much of the commentary, working without a detailed script. More than 13,000 staff announcers were em ployed on regularly scheduled, full-time basis in radio and television broadcasting stations in early 1965. About 85 percent of them were em ployed in radio. The average radio station em ployed 3 or 4 announcers, larger stations employed 8 or 10. Most television stations employed three staff announcers, although larger stations some times employed five or six. In addition to staff announcers, an estimated 10,000 to 15,000 freelance announcers sell their services for individual as signments to networks and stations, or to adver tising agencies and other independent producers, for both programs (news, sports, disc jockey, etc.) and commercials. Some announcers become wellknown and highly paid personalities. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK schools offer training in announcing, and some universities offer courses of study in the broad casting field. A college liberal arts education also provides an excellent background for an an nouncer. A college education plus 3 years of work experience in smaller stations, is the minimum requirement for employment in network broad casting. Most announcers get their first broadcasting jobs in small stations. Because announcers in small stations sometimes operate transmitters, prospective announcers often obtain a Federal Communications Commission Radiotelephone First Class Operator License which enables them legally to operate a transmitter and, therefore, makes them much more useful to these stations. (For information on how to obtain such a license, see p. 747.) Announcers usually work in several different stations in the course of their careers. After acquiring experience in a station in a small com munity, an ambitious and talented announcer may move to a better paying job in a larger community. He may also advance by working into a regular program as a disc jockey, sportscaster, Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To succeed as an announcer, one must have a pleasant and well-controlled voice, a good sense of timing, and excellent pronunciation. In addi tion, a thorough knowledge of correct English usage, and a knowledge of dramatics, sports, music, and current events, improve chances for success. In television, rather high standards of personal appearance must also be met. When on the air, an announcer must be able to react quickly and imaginatively in unusual situations. He must also be a convincing salesman when presenting commercials. In addition to all the above qualifi cations, the most successful announcers have a combination of personality and showmanship that makes them attractive to audiences. Therefore, anyone considering a career as an announcer should judge his chances of success realistically. Most announcers are men, but there are a few opportunities for women, especially in programs and commercials aimed at women. High school courses in English, public speaking, dramatics, and foreign languages, plus sports and music hobbies, are valuable background for pro spective announcers. A number of vocational Radio network news correspondent broadcasts. 751 RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING or other specialist. Competition for announcing jobs in the national networks is intense, and an announcer usually must be a college graduate with at least 5 years of successful announcing experience before he will be given an audition. Employment Outlook The employment of announcers is expected to increase moderately in the 1965-75 decade, as new radio and television stations are opened. The gains in employment resulting from these open ings during the next 10 years, will be slightly reduced by the increased use of automatic pro graming. Some job openings in this relatively small occupation will also result from transfers to other fields of work and from retirements and deaths. The growth of the industry and replace ment needs will create, on the average, about 500 openings for announcers each year in the years ahead. I t will be easier to get an entry job in radio than in television because of the greater number of radio stations, especially small stations, which hire beginners. However, the great attraction this field has for young people and its relatively small size will result in keen competition for entry jobs. Earnings and Working Conditions In late 1964, the average earnings of staff an nouncers were $106 a week in radio and approxi mately $164 in television. Earnings of individual announcers depended primarily on the size and location of the communities in which they worked. As a rule, wages increase with the size of the community. In communities of comparable size, wages are somewhat lower in small stations than in large ones. Earnings of radio announcers ranged from about $75 per week in small com munities to approximately $240 in large metro politan areas. Earnings of television announcers ranged from about $110 a week in small com munities to about $240 in large metropolitan areas. The earnings of many better paid announcers include fees received from advertisers in addition to the salaries received from stations. Such fees are larger and more common in television than in radio. In small radio stations, announcers are generally paid a fixed weekly or monthly salary. Announcers who work in regular shows, such as disc jockeys, or announcers who become identified with popular network radio or television pro grams, earn considerably more than other staff announcers. In medium and large communities, some of these personalities earn more than $15,000 a year. Top announcers in the largest metropolitan areas sometimes earn more than $50,000 a year. Most announcers in large stations work a 40hour week and receive overtime for work beyond 40 hours. In small stations, many announcers work 2 to 6 hours of overtime each week. Evening, night, and weekend work occurs frequently since some stations are on the air 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Announcers’ working hours consist of both time on the air and time spent in preparing for broadcasts. Working con ditions are usually pleasant because of the variety of work and the many personal contacts which are part of the job. Announcers also receive some satisfaction from becoming well known in the area their station serves. Broadcast Technicians (2d ed. D.O.T. 0-66.00 through .09) (3d ed. D.O.T. 194.281, .282, and .782; 957.282; and 963.188 through .887) Nature of Work Broadcast technicians set up, operate, and maintain the electronic equipment used to re cord or transmit radio and television programs. They work with equipment such as microphones, sound recorders, lighting equipment, sound effects devices, television cameras, magnetic video tape recorders, and motion picture pro7 7 8 -3 1 6 0 — 65-------49 jection equipment. In the control room, broad cast technicians operate equipment that regu lates the quality of sounds and pictures being recorded or broadcast. They also operate con trols that switch broadcasts from one camera or studio to another, from film to live program ing, or from network to local programs. From the control room, they give technical directions 752 Engineers and program director monitor video viewers in control room. to personnel in the studio by means of hand signals and, in television, by use of telephone headsets. When working on disc jockey pro grams, they sometimes operate phonograph record turntables. Other control room duties may include operating movie projectors, making recordings of live shows, and keeping an opera tion log of all broadcasts. As a rule, broadcast technicians in small sta tions perform a wide variety of duties. In large stations and in networks, technicians are more specialized, although specific job assignments may change from day to day. Broadcast tech nicians who specialize may be given titles such as transmitter technician (monitors and logs out going signals and is responsible for proper oper ation of the transmitter), maintenance techni cian (sets up, maintains, and repairs electronic broadcasting equipment), audio control tech nician (operates controls that regulate sound pickup, transmission, and switching), video control technician (operates controls that regu late the quality, brightness, and contrast of tele vision pictures), lighting technician (directs lighting of television programs), -field technician OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK (sets up and operates broadcasting equipment for programs originating outside the studio), record ing technician (operates and maintains sound recording equipment), and video tape recording technician (operates and maintains magnetic video tape recording equipment). Sometimes the term “engineer” is substituted for technician in the above titles. Installing and maintaining complex electronic equipment is the most technically difficult work of broadcast technicians. Most technicians do at least occasional maintenance, but large stations usually have one or two experienced men whose chief duties are to repair and maintain electronic equipment under supervision of the chief engi neer. In small radio stations, the chief engineer frequently does all maintenance and repair work himself. When events taking place outside the studios are to be broadcast, technicians go to the site of the pickup and set up, test, and operate the necessary equipment. They also make emergency repairs. After the broadcast, they dismantle the equipment and return to the station. In early 1965, over 7,000 nonsupervisory broad cast technicians were employed in radio sta tions and more than 6,000 in television stations. Most radio stations are small enterprises em ploying fewer than 4 technicians, although a few large radio stations may employ more than 15. Nearly all television stations employ at least 5 broadcast techinicians with the average large station having about 25. A few of the largest television stations may employ more than 75. The majority of broadcast technicians work in communities of more than 250,000 population. The highest paying and most specialized jobs are concentrated in New York, Los Angeles, Washington, D.C., and Chicago, the originating centers for most of the network programs. In addition to the nonsupervisory technicians, an estimated 5,000 supervisory personnel with job titles such as chief engineer, assistant chief engineer, director of engineering, technical di rector, and supervisory technician work in engi neering departments. Supervisory personnel are responsible for the operation, maintenance, and repair of all electronic equipment in the studio, at the transmitter, and on remote broadcasting sites. They may also do maintenance and repair 753 RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING work, design and build new equipment, purchase equipment for the station, and help lay out plans for building new studios, transmitters, relay equipment, and towers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A young man interested in becoming a broad cast technician should plan on getting a Radio telephone First Class Operator License from the Federal Communications Commission. Federal law requires that anyone who operates or adjusts broadcast transmitters in television and radio stations must hold such a license. Some stations require all their broadcast technicians, including those who do not operate transmitters, to have this license. Applicants for the license must pass a series of written examinations covering the construction and operation of transmission and receiving equipment, the characteristics of elec tromagnetic waves, and Federal Government and international regulations and practices governing broadcasting. Information about these examina tions, and guides to study for them, may be obtained from the Federal Communications Com mission, Washington, D.C. 20554. High school courses in algebra and trigonom etry, and in physics and other sciences, provide valuable background for young men anticipating careers in this occupation. Building and operating an amateur radio station is also good training. A good way to acquire the knowledge necessary for becoming a broadcast technician is to take an electronics course in a technical school. Many schools give courses especially designed to prepare the student for the FCC first class license test. Training at the technical school or college level is a distinct advantage for those who hope to advance to supervisory positions or to the more specialized jobs in large stations and in the net works. Young men with FCC first-class licenses who get entry jobs are instructed and advised by the chief engineer or other experienced technicians concerning the work procedures of the station. In small stations, they may start by operating the transmitter and handling other technical duties after a brief instruction period. As they acquire more experience and skill, they are as signed to more responsible jobs. Men who dem onstrate above-average ability may move into the top-level technical positions, such as super visory technician and chief engineer. A college degree in engineering is becoming increasingly important for advancement to supervisory posi tions. Employment Outlook The number of broadcast technicians is ex pected to increase only slightly in the 1965-75 decade. Retirements, deaths, and transfers to other jobs will result in some additional job openings. Some new job opportunities for technicians will be provided by the new radio and television sta tions expected to go on the air during this period. In addition, color television broadcasting, which probably will become more common in the years ahead, may slightly increase the need for tech nicians. Color television pickup and transmit ting equipment is much more complicated than black and white equipment, and requires more maintenance and technical know-how. However, other technical advances, such as automatic switching and programing, automatic operation logging, and remote control of transmitters will limit the increase in job opportunities in the new stations and replacement needs in existing sta tions. Earnings and Working Conditions In late 1964, weekly earnings of broadcast technicians averaged about $105 in radio and about $133 in television. However, earnings varied greatly depending on such factors as size and location of the community a station serves, the size of the station, and the experience of the individual. As a rule, technicians’ wages are highest in large cities. Beginning wages for technicians in small radio stations, where most of them start, ranged from $60 to $80 per week. Experienced technicians in radio earned from about $80 a week in small towns to more than $185 in larger communities. Earnings of experienced broadcast technicians in television ranged from $110 a week in small towns to more than $215 in large cities. Many broadcast technicians in the networks and largest cities earned more than $225 754 a week. Supervisory technicans below the rank of chief engineer in the networks and large city sta tions often earned in excess of $250 a week. Chief engineers earned still higher salaries. Most technicians in large stations work a 40hour week with overtime pay for work beyond 40 hours. Many broadcast technicians in the larger cities work a 37-hour week. In small stations, many technicians work 2 to 8 hours of overtime each week. Evening, night, and weekend work occurs frequently since some stations are on the OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK air as many as 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Network technicians may occasionally have to work continuously for many hours and under great pressure in order to meet broadcast dead lines. Broadcast technicians generally work indoors in pleasant surroundings. The work is interesting and there is often considerable variety of duties. When remote pickups are made, however, techni cians may work out of doors at some distance from the studios, under less favorable conditions. RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS The railroads, with their network of more than 200,000 miles of rail line reaching into all parts of the country, are one of the Nation’s largest employers. About three-quarters of a million railroad workers were employed in mid-1965, oper ating trains, looking after the needs of the travel ing public, maintaining and repairing facilities and equipment, and carrying on the hundreds of other activities required in this industry. These activities offer a great variety of interesting careers requiring different kinds of skills and levels of education. In most railroad occupations, a worker starts at the bottom and works his way up by learn ing his job, proving his ability, and acquiring the seniority which will enable him to advance. Nature and Location of the Industry The railroad industry is made up of “line-haul” railroad companies which transport freight and passengers between cities and towns, and switching and terminal companies which operate facilities at stations, freight yards, and other terminal points. About 600 of these railroad companies were oper ating in 1964. In addition, the Pullman Co. per formed special services for passengers traveling on these railroads. The class I line-haul railroads, which include all of the large, well-known companies, handle more than 95 percent of the railroad industry’s business and employ about 93 percent of all rail road workers. With more than 28,000 locomotive units, about 23,000 passenger train cars, and about 1.8 million freight cars, they transported almost 2.5 billion tons of freight and over 313 million pas sengers in 1964. Employment and earnings data for jobs on class I line-haul railroads are used in this chapter to illustrate employment and earnings throughout the entire railroad industry. Of the various transportation services provided by the railroads, freight movement of commodi ties, such as coal, ore, grain, lumber, and manu factured products, accounts for the great bulk of railroad revenue and employment. Passenger service is also important, although it has declined substantially during the past 20 years. Other rail road services include mail and express. Railroad workers are employed in every State and in both large and small communities, but the greatest numbers work at terminal points w'here the railroads maintain their central offices, freight yards, and maintenance and repair shops. The metropolitan area of Chicago, where the great eastern and western railroad systems meet, is the hub of the Nation’s railroad net work and has more railroad workers than any other area. Other places where particularly large numbers of railroad workers are employed are areas around New York City, Los Angeles, Pitts burgh, Philadelphia, Cleveland, and St. Louis. “Railroad towns,” where locomotive and car shops are located, such as Altoona, Pa., and Rose ville, Calif., also have relatively large concen trations of railroad workers. Railroad Occupations The work force of the railroad industry can be divided into five main groups—employees who (1) operate trains, (2) perform communica tions, station, and office work, (3) build and main tain locomotives, cars, and other rolling stock, (4) build and maintain tracks, structures, and other railroad property, and (5) handle luggage, pre pare and serve food, and provide other personal services to passengers. In 1964, 94 percent of the wmrkers in railroad jobs were men. Most women employed by the railroads do office work. Chart 39 shows the number of employees in some of the principal railroad occupations. Other occupations in which large numbers of workers are employed but which are not shown on the chart, range from unskilled laundry and clean ing jobs to professional positions such as acount755 756 ant, engineer, and statistician. (Information about some of these jobs is given elsewhere in the Handbook.') The workers directly engaged in running the trains are known as “operating employees.” They represent more than one-fourth of all railroad workers. Class I line-haul railroads had nearly 180,000 operating employees in 1964. In this group are locomotive engineers, firemen, conduc tors, brakemen, and, on some passenger trains, bag gagemen. These men work together as train crews, either operating trains out on the “run” or operating trains at the terminals and railroad yards where freight is loaded and unloaded, freight cars are received and switched, and trains are bro ken up and made up. Other operating employ ees who work in the yards include switchtenders, who assist conductors (or foremen) and brakemen (or switchmen) by throwing the track switches, and hostlers, who fuel locomotives, check their operating condition, and deliver them to the engine crews. A large group of railroad workers, about onefourth of all those employed in the industry, consists of communications, station, and office employees who regulate the movement of trains and take care of the business affairs of the rail roads. In 1964, class I line-haul railroads em ployed about 169,500 persons in such jobs. Com munications are handled by dispatchers who coordinate the movement of trains and issue train orders, and by telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen who either pass train orders and other instructions to the train crews or carry them out by setting signals and track switches. At all stations, station agents are in charge of the rail road’s business affairs. Railroad clerks work in stations and company offices where they may do secretarial and other kinds of office work, assist station agents, deal with customers, sell tickets, tend baggage rooms, keep records, and perform related tasks. Also included in this group of railroad workers are claims investigators, account ants, lawyers, motor vehicle operators, patrolmen, and watchmen. More than a fifth of all railroad workers are employed in railroad yards, carshops, and engine houses where they maintain and repair loco motives, cars, and other railroad rolling stock. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK CHART 39 EMPLOYMENT IN SELECTED RAILROAD O C C U P A T IO N S___ Thousands of workers, 1964 0 20 40 60 80 1 ------------1------------- 1--------------r 100 120 — |----------------------- 1 TRAIN, EN G IN E, AND YARD SERVICE Brakemen Conductors Locomotive engineers Locomotive firemen O FFICE, COMM UNICATION, AND STATION Clerical workers Telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen Station agents M AINTENANCE OF EQUIPMENT Carmen Machinists Electrical workers Helpers (all skilled trades) , Gang foremen and leaders Sheet-metal workers Apprentices (all skilled trades) Boilermakers Blacksmiths MAINTENANCE OF WAY AND STRUCTURES Trackmen and gang foremen Bridge and building workers Signal department workers Portable equipment opera tors and helpers Source: Wage statistics of class 1 Railroads in the U.S., Interstate Com m erce Com m ission. Class I line-haul roads employed about 155,000 workers in this group in 1964. Carmen perform a variety of repair and maintenance tasks nec essary to keep railroad freight and passenger cars in good operating condition. Electrical workers, machinists, boilermakers, blacksmiths, and sheet metal workers are also employed in car shops. A considerably smaller group of railroad work ers, about one-sixth of the total, maintain and construct tracks, bridges, stations, signals, and other railroad property. The class I line-haul rail roads employed about 99,000 in work of this kind in 1964. Trackmen and other maintenance-ofw^ay workers maintain, construct, and repair tracks and roadbeds. Bridge and building mechanics construct and maintain bridges, tunnels, and many other kinds of structures along the right of way. Signal workers are responsible for installing the railroad’s vast network of train and crossing signals and for keeping it in working order. RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS Another small group of railroad workers pro vide personal services to passengers at stations and aboard trains. With 15,000 employees in 1964, or 2 percent of all employed in the railroad industry, it is by far the smallest of the five major railroad occupational groups. It includes Pull man conductors who are in charge of sleeping and parlor car service on most trains, as well as porters and attendants who perform many kinds of personal service for passengers. This group also includes cooks and waiters who pre pare and serve food and redcaps who work in and around railroad stations where they handle lug gage and otherwise assist passengers in boarding and leaving trains. (Additional information about cooks and waiters is given elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training/ Other Qualifications/ and Advancement For most jobs, particularly those on the trains, in the yards, and around the stations, training is received on the job. The new employee learns by working and receiving instruction from experienced men. For some office and mainte nance jobs, training may be obtained in high schools and vocational schools. Home study courses on railroading are also available. In addi tion, universities and technical schools offer courses in railway engineering, transportation, traffic management, and other subjects valuable to professional and technical workers. New employees in some occupations—princi pally those connected with train or engine service —start as “extra board'' men, that is, their names are placed on an “extra list” for individual occu pations. From these lists, they are called to fill vacancies that arisef due to vacations, days off, or illness of men on regular jobs. They also may be called for extra work because of an increase in railroad traffic. As regular job assignments become available and as the extra board work ers gain experience and seniority, they are assigned to regular positions. The time spent on extra board work varies with the type of job and the number of available openings. In some cases workers may not receive regular assign ments for a number of years. Apprenticeship programs are limited chiefly to trainees in the railroad shop crafts. Many 757 of these programs are jointly planned and oper ated by the companies and the railroad workers’ unions. Of the several thousand men who wTere taking this kind of training in 1964, the majority were “regular” apprentices, usually high school graduates with no previous work experience, who were working and receiving instruction in their chosen trades for a 4-year period. Others were “helper” apprentices, men with some previous experience as railroad workers, who were receiv ing the same kind of training, usually for a 3year period. Applicants with a high school education or its equivalent are preferred by railroad companies for most kinds of nonprofessional positions. Good physical condition is required for most jobs, and almost all large railroads require applicants to pass physical examinations before they are hired; in some jobs, physical examina tions are required periodically. Excellent hear ing and eyesight are essential for train and engine service jobs, and color blindness is an absolute bar to employment in wyork involving the interpretation of railroad signals. Promotions of qualified workers to jobs covered by union-management agreements are made on the basis of seniority. Most job vacancies are listed on a bulletin board, and all workers interested may “bid" for them. The job goes to the qualified applicant whose length of service places him highest on the seniority list. Often, before work ers can qualify for promotion, they must pass writ ten and performance tests. For occupations in train and engine service, there are well-established avenues of promotion. Engineers are always chosen from the ranks of the firemen, and conduc tors from the list of brakemen. A railroad worker’s seniority usually entitles him to promotion only for job openings which occur within a limited area or “seniority district” of the railroad system for which he wrnrks. In some cases, seniority rights may apply only to one shop, locality, or office. Among train and engine personnel, seniority rights may be limited either to road (freight and/or passenger) service, or yard service. In such cases, workers may bid only for positions in the particular type of serv ice in which they have been employed. The worker’s seniority also determines how much choice he may have with respect to his 758 working conditions. A beginning telegrapher, for instance, may have to work several years on a night shift in an out-of-the-way location before he accumulates enough seniority to get an assign ment without these disadvantages. (Later sections of this chapter contain more complete information about the training and other qualifications for selected occupations in the railroad industry.) Employment Outlook The longrun decline in railroad employment is expected to continue, but at a gradually decreas ing rate in the immediate years ahead. If the an ticipated growth of freight traffic is realized, however, a slow upward movement in employment should occur during the early 1970’s. Technological innovation and changing pat terns of transportation and production have re sulted in a substantial decline in railroad employ ment in recent years. Between 1955 and 1964, employment in class I line-haul railroads dropped 37 percent, from nearly 1.1 million to 665,000. Such developments as the use of larger, more powerful diesel locomotives and the extensive use of machines for roadway upkeep have had a considerable employment impact. The railroad work force also declined as competition from other modes of transportation—notably automo biles, trucks, buses, airplanes, and pipelines— brought a steep drop in railroad passenger travel and relatively little growth in freight traffic. Most of the factors which have led to reduced employment in the past will continue to influ ence railroad employment during the decade ahead. In addition, mergers of connecting or parallel rail roads could further reduce railroad employment by eliminating facilities, such as those at termi nals, and by combining accounting and other func tions. Some mergers have occurred in recent years and, on the basis of present developments, other mergers are likely. Despite prospects for declining employment in the immediate future, job opportunities will be available for thousands of new railroad workers. The railroads have one of the largest work forces in American industry, with a high proportion of older workers. Many jobs will become vacant be cause of retirements, deaths, promotions to other OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK railroad jobs, and transfers to other fields of work. Retirements and deaths alone may result in tens of thousands of job openings each year during the next 10 years. Job openings due to replacement needs will number in the thousands. However, opportunities for new workers in some nonoperating occupations —such as those of clerk, roadway maintenance worker, and signalman—may be restricted as a result of recent labor-management agreements providing for job protection of many nonoper ating (other than train and engine service) employee groups. Under these contracts, a limita tion has been established on reductions in the number of workers in any one year; provisions were made for moving unneeded workers in a given craft or occupational group in one district to another district where their skills can be use fully employed; and assurances were given that regular seasonal employees would, in future years, be offered employment at least equivalent to what they performed in 1964. Another restric tion on openings for new workers is the general practice of recalling furloughed workers before considering job applicants to fill vacancies. This restriction is most constraining for jobs in special ized railroad work, such as that of telegrapher and towerman. Job opportunities will be affected much more in some geographic areas than in others by these restrictions. Job openings for work as locomotive firemen (helpers) have also been extremely limited since May 7, 1964, the effective date of a compulsory arbitration award designed to eventually elimi nate 90 percent of fireman (helper) positions in road freight and yard locomotive service. Fire man (helper) positions on locomotives in passen ger service were not affected by this award, nor were any positions of firemen (helpers) for any class of locomotive service operating where State law requires employment of firemen on locomo tives. The award is temporary, expiring in April 1966 and since no general agreement had been reached between the parties in the dispute by mid1965, the outlook for job opportunities in this occupation is uncertain. Future job opportunities for applicants prob ably will be most numerous in construction and maintenance work along the right-of-way, in operating jobs as brakemen, and in office work. 759 RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS However, because of the seasonality of railroad work, and the seniority system under which new workers are furloughed first and recalled last, many new workers will have less than full-time employment during the first few years on the job. The number and type of job openings for appli cants hired by an individual railroad also will be influenced by the rapidity of the railroad’s adoption of new equipment and new methods of operation, and its geographical location in rela tion to changing marketing conditions. There will be a need for professional engineers and skilled personnel capable of maintaining and improving the new mechanical and electrical equipment gradually being introduced. Oppor tunities should increase for industrial engineers and methods analysts as railroads seek better means of utilizing equipment and personnel. The increasing use of electronic data-processing equip ment to handle a wide range of railroad account ing and statistical activities will generate a grow ing demand for programers and other trained specialists. As the railroads continue to explore new ways to meet competition, opportunities will arise for specialists in industrial development and marketing. Railroad freight traffic is expected to rise sub stantially over the next 10 years, reversing the trend of recent years. Toward the end of the 1960’s, the need for new workers, due to increasing freight traffic, is expected to about offset the declines in railroad employment that will result from increasing efficiency in operations and the declining passenger traffic. The anticipated rise in demand for railroad freight service is based on the assumption of a high rate of growth in the economy through the mid-1970’s. Even higher levels of railroad freight traffic may also result if improved freight handling methods and equip ment are more widely adopted. For example, the shipment of highway trailers and large containers on railroad flat cars, and the use of larger, special purpose freight cars may increase freight traffic significantly by improving rail carriers’ ability to compete more effectively with other modes of transportation. New interest has also been shown in the use of rapid rail transit for intercity and intraurban passenger movement. Studies of the best methods for moving passengers within and between urban areas are progressing, and may result in a signifi cant resurgence of rail passenger transportation. In that event, railroad employment opportunities would increase substantially. Earnings and Working Conditions Average earnings of railroad workers are higher than those of workers in most manufacturing industries. Employees of class I line-haul rail roads, exclusive of executive and administrative personnel, averaged $2.80 an hour and $122 a week in 1964, whereas production workers in all manufacturing industries averaged $2.53 an hour and $102.99 a week. The earnings of individual railroad workers vary greatly because of the great variety of their occupations and skill requirements. Geographic differences in wage levels are considerably less than in most other industries, since the wage scales specified in many labor-management con tracts in the railroad industry are identical throughout the country. (Earnings in some of the principal occupations are discussed in later sections of this chapter.) The great majority of railroad workers are members of trade unions and many of the con ditions under which they work are regulated by collective bargaining agreements. Contracts between the unions and the railroad companies contain clauses dealing with wage rates, hours of work, vacation pay, seniority, and other mat ters. (The principal unions representing each occupational group are listed in the sections of this chapter which deal with individual occupa tions.) The work schedules of railroad employees and the conditions under which they are paid for overtime work depend upon the type of opera tion in which they are employed. The great ma jority of railroad employees work at terminals— in yards, stations, and railroad offices. In 1964, the “basic” workweek for most workers in this group was a 5-day week of 40 hours. Premium pay, amounting to time and one-half the regular wage rate, was usually paid for any time worked over 8 hours a day. In freight and passenger road service, the basic workday for train and engine crews is established on an entirely different basis. Generally, when 760 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK a member of the train or engine crew has covered a specified number of miles, or worked a certain number of hours—whichever occurs first—he receives a day’s pay at his regular wage rate. He receives extra pay for any additional miles cov ered or hours worked on that day. The basic hours of employees directly con cerned with looking after the needs of passengers aboard trains—dining car cooks and waiters, Pullman porters, and train attendants—are set on a monthly basis. In July 1965, some workers in these jobs received time and one-half pay for hours worked over 184 a month and those employed on regular assignments were guaranteed at least 174 hours of work a month. Others received over time after 240 hours and were guaranteed 205 hours a month, if working on regular jobs. Because freight shippers and the traveling public must be served 24 hours a day, the mem bers of train and engine crews, as well as hostlers, telegraphers and telephoners, and station agents, are often required to work nights, weekends, and on holidays. Irregular work schedules are par ticularly common for extra board workers, since they have no regular assignments and may be called to work any time of the day or night. Some railroad workers, like bridge and build ing mechanics and certain track and road main tenance workers, are required to -work away from home for days at a time. Practically all railroad employees receive 1 week’s paid vacation after 1 year on the pay roll, 2 weeks after 3 years, 3 weeks after 15 years, and 4 weeks after 20 years. On most roads, non operating employees receive pay for 8 holidays a year and operating employees in yard service re ceive pay for 7 holidays a year. Under the federally administered Railroad Retirement Act, all employees with more than 10 years of service in the railroad industry receive pensions upon retirement. They receive full pensions when they reach age 65 and reduced pensions at age 62. Those who have worked for the railroads for at least 30 years may retire on a reduced pension at age 60. Employees with 10 years or more of service who become disabled and are unable to work, and dependent wives and hus bands of railroad workers who have died also receive pensions. In March 1965, the average pen sion paid to railroad workers who retired because of age or disability was about $138 a month; the average pension paid to survivors of railroad workers, about $56 a month. Another Federal law, the Railroad Unemploy ment Insurance Act, provides benefits for rail road workers who become unemployed. In 1965, these benefits ranged from $22.50 to $51 a week depending on earnings. In March 1965, the aver age daily unemployment benefit paid was $10.09 (equal to $50.45 for 5 benefit days per week). Un employment benefits are paid for a period up to 26 weeks, but workers with 10 or more years of service can receive benefits for a longer period. Under the Railroad Unemployment Insurance Act, railroad workers also receive compensation for workdays lost because of sickness or injury. In March 1965, the average daily sickness bene fit paid was $10.12. Other insurance programs are operated under agreements with trade unions and provide group life insurance to employees and comprehensive hospital and medical insurance to these employees and their dependents. Where To G o for More Information Additional information about occupations in the railroad industry can be obtained from rail road offices in your locality. General informa tion about the railroad industry can be obtained from : Association of American Railroads, Transportation Building, Washington, D.C. 20006. Locomotive Engineers (2d ed. D.O.T. 5-41.010) (3d ed. D.O.T. 910.383) Nature of Work The engineer is responsible for running the locomotive safely and efficiently. He operates the throttle, air brakes, and other controls, and he supervises the work of the fireman (helper) who may work in the cab with him. Engineers work in railroad yards, or on the road in passenger or freight service. 761 RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS The yard engineer operates the locomotive or switch-engine, which is used to move freight and passenger cars when trains are being made up before a run and broken up after a run, or when cars are being switched for loading or unloading. The engineer in passenger or freight service operates the locomotive which moves trains over the road, in accordance with the train orders for each run or any instructions received en route through the conductor, the wayside signal system, or by train radio. Before and after each run, the engineer checks on the condition of the locomotive and either sees that minor adjustments are made on the spot or reports to the engine foreman mechanical defects needing attention. While operating his locomo tive, he must observe track signals and comply with speed restrictions at all hours and in all weather conditions. To do this he must be thoroughly familiar with the characteristics of the road over which he is operating. He must constantly be alert, especially for obstructions on the track or other emergencies. In 1964, about 34,300 engineers were employed by class I line-haul railroads, and a few thousand more were employed by short-line railways and switching and terminal companies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Vacancies in engineer positions are filled by firemen (helpers) who have qualified for promo tion. Selection is on a seniority basis. In order to qualify, a fireman (helper) must pass comprehen sive examinations which deal with the train’s mechanical and electrical equipment, and with fuel economy, safety, timetables, train orders, and other operating rules and regulations. He must also be able to operate any kind of locomotive in service on his road. A newly promoted engineer starts out as an extra board man without any regular assignment. I t may be several years before he receives such an assignment. During this period, he works on temporary assignments whenever an engineer is needed. An experienced engineer may advance to a supervisory position, such as foreman of engines for his road. Engineer checks conditions by radio with freight train crew. Engineers are required to take physical exami nations at regular intervals. I t is particularly important that they have good eyesight and hearing. If they fail at any time to meet all of the physical standards, they may be restricted to working as engineers only in certain types of service, or they may be transferred to other kinds of work where physical standards are less exacting. Employment Outlook The number of job openings available as loco motive engineers during the next decade will be limited. Virtually all openings during the re mainder of the 1960’s and early 1970’s will arise from the need to fill positions left vacant by engi neers who retire or die. (Most workers are in the older age groups.) These positions will be filled by firemen (helpers) who are promoted, or by firemen whose jobs as engineers were termi nated during recent years because of cutbacks in railroad services. The number of engineers employed by the railroads has been declining for some years because of the decrease in railroad business and 762 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK increasing multiple-unit operation of diesel loco motives. Introduction of technological innova tions, such as the use of remotely and automati cally controlled devices for freight car classifi cation and signal control, and other changes in equipment and operating methods, were also important factors in lower employment levels. The total number of engineers employed by class I line-haul railroads dropped from about 44,000 in 1955 to about 34,300 in 1964, and some further decrease is expected during the remainder of the 1960’s, after which employment may stabi lize or increase slightly. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of engineers depend on the class of locomotive operated and the kind of service in which the engineer is employed. Engineers in yard service for class I line-haul railroads (in cluding extra board men) earned, on the aver age, about $800 a month in 1964. In road freight service, engineers averaged $944 a month. The earnings of passenger service engineers averaged about $982 a month in 1964. In 1964, the standard workweek at straighttime rates for yard engineers varied from 5 days on some railroads and railroad divisions to 7 days on others. All yard engineers worked basic 8-hour days with time and one-half paid for work over 8 hours. The basic unit of work for road freight and passenger engineers is 100 miles. Under certain circumstances they may be paid on an hourly basis or on a miles-hour basis. On many roads, the amount a road engineer may earn in a single month is governed by mileage limitations agreed upon by the unions and the railroad companies. Whenever an en gineer on one of these roads reaches the maximum number of miles he is permitted to operate a locomotive during a month, his assignment for the rest of the month is taken over by another engineer—usually an extra board man. The engineer in road service, even on regular assignments, is often scheduled to work nights, weekends, and holidays at straight-time rates. Like other workers in road service, he must often “lay over” away from home for a period of time at the end of a run before he makes the return trip back to his home terminal. The assignments of engineers on the extra board may be very irregular, because these men may be called to work at any time of the day or night, and the amount of traffic varies from one season to another on many roads. Extra board engineers are also likely to have less work, with the result that their earnings may be lower than those of men with regular assignments. On all major railroads, wages and the condi tions under which engineers work are agreed upon by employers and unions. The great major ity of engineers are represented by the Brother hood of Locomotive Engineers (Ind.). Some are represented by the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen and Enginemen. Locomotive Firemen (Helpers) (2d ed. D.O.T. 5-^2.100) (3d ed. D.O.T. 910.383) Nature of Work The locomotive fireman (helper) works with the engineer either in the railroad yards or in road service. At the beginning of his run, the fireman (helper) checks to make sure that the locomotive is supplied with the fuel, sand, and water needed for the run, that the engine is in proper working order, and that the flagging equipment, classi fication markers, and tools needed by the engine crew are on hand and ready to use. During the run, he makes mechanical and electrical adjust ments as needed. On passenger trains, he is also responsible for operating the equipment which supplies heat to the train. From his position at the left side of the cab, the fireman (helper) assists the engineer by act ing as lookout for obstructions on tracks and at road crossings, and by checking wayside signals which indicate the speed at which the train is to proceed. In addition, he inspects the train as 763 RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS it rounds curves, because this view of the train enables him to spot smoke, sparks, fire, and other signs of defective equipment. The fireman (helper) must be prepared to take over the controls of the locomotive, should the engineer become ill or otherwise incapacitated. An important part of his job, therefore, is learn ing to operate the locomotive by observing the engineer. Often he may be called upon to relieve the engineer at the controls for brief periods, or to take the controls for a “practice run.” Class I line-haul railroads employed about 30,000 firemen in 1964. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For the relatively few firemen (helper) posi tions being filled at present, most railroads prefer that applicants be at least 21 years of age and not over 35. Most applicants hired are over 20 years of age. A high school education or its equivalent is desired. Good health is important, and firemen must be able to pass periodic physical examinations. Standards as to eyesight and hear ing are particularly high. A beginning fireman first makes a series of trial trips in the railroad yard or on the road. On these trips, he works under the direction of an experienced engineer or fireman who instructs him about his future duties and about railroad rules and regulations. This training period lasts a few days on some roads and as long as 3 weeks on others. After the newly hired fireman has satisfactorily demonstrated his ability on the trial trips, and after he has passed examinations on railroad rules and regulations, his name is placed on the fireman’s extra board and he becomes sub ject to call for temporary work assignments. He may remain on extra board work up to several years before he obtains his first regular assign ment. On some roads, beginning assignments are in yard service and the fireman works his way up first to road freight service and then to road passenger service. On other railroads, fire men usually remain either in yard service or in road service throughout their railroad careers. Firemen with sufficient experience and sen iority—usually at least 3 or 4 years—can become eligible for promotion to the position of engineer by passing qualifying examinations covering the mechanical and electrical equipment on trains, air brake systems, fuel economy, timetables, train orders, and other operating rules and regulations. As engineers are needed, qualified firemen with the longest seniority are placed on the engineers’ extra board. Employment Outlook Job openings for work as locomotive firemen (helpers) have been extremely limited since May 1964; the effective date of a compulsory arbitra tion award designed to eventually eliminate all but a relatively few fireman (helper) positions in road freight and yard locomotive service. Firemen (helper) positions on locomotives in passenger service were not affected by this award, nor were any positions of firemen (helpers) for any class of locomotive service operating where State law requires the employment of firemen on locomotives. Even in these States, however, quali fied firemen may be brought in from other States to fill job vacancies. The national arbitration award is temporary, expiring in April 1966, and since no general agreement had been reached between the parties in the dispute by late 1965, the outlook for job opportunities in this occupation cannot be an ticipated with any degree of certainty. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of firemen depend on the class of locomotive on which they work and the type of service for which the locomotive is operated. Firemen in yard service for class I line-haul rail roads (including extra board men) averaged $622 a month in 1964. Freight service firemen averaged $734 monthly on freight trains. Road passenger firemen averaged $839 monthly. In 1964, firemen in yard service worked a basic 8-hour day and 40-hour week, and 1 times the basic hourly rate was paid for work beyond these hours. Firemen in road service received extra pay under certain conditions; for example, when they traveled more than 100 miles during a run. On many roads, the amount that firemen in road service could earn in a single month was governed by mileage limitations agreed upon by the unions and the railroad companies. Whenever a fireman on one of these roads reached the maximum num 764 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ber of miles he was permitted to cover in a month, his assignment for the rest of the month was taken over by another fireman—usually a man on the extra board. Firemen must often work at night and on week ends and holidays because train schedules require 24-hour-a-day service. Road service often requires that they be away from their home stations for varying periods of time. Irregular working hours are particularly common among men on the extra board and in road freight service. Extra board men tend to have less work and therefore lower incomes than firemen with regular assignments. On many roads, the amount of work varies from one season of the year to another. Workers in this occupation on all major roads are covered by union contracts. The great major ity of firemen are represented by the Brother hood of Locomotive Firemen and Enginemen. Some are members of the Brotherhood of Loco motive Engineers (Ind.). Conductors (2d ed. D.O.T. 0-92.00 through .29) (3d ed. D.O.T. 198.168) Nature of Work Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Conductors are responsible for seeing that rail road trains are moved according to train orders or other instructions. Freight and passenger train conductors are the “captains” of their trains. They are responsible for the safety of their passengers and cargoes, and they supervise the work of the train crews. Before a freight or passenger train leaves the terminal, the conductor receives the train orders from the dispatcher and confers with other crew members to make sure they understand the orders. During the run, he sees that the cars in the train are inspected periodically and arranges either for the repair of mechanical breakdowns while the train is on its run, or for defective cars to be set out on the nearest siding. At stops, he signals to the engineer the proper time for depar ture. As the superior officer on the train, the con ductor takes charge in any emergency that may occur while the train is on its run, and all persons employed on it are subject to his instructions. On freight trains, the conductor keeps a record of the contents and destination of each car, and sees that freight cars are picked up and set out along the route. On passenger trains, the conductor collects tickets and cash fares. Yard conductors, often called “yard foremen,” direct the work of the switching crews who make up and break up trains. In mechanized yards, yard conductors operate consoles that electrically control the alinement of track switches. Openings for conductors are filled on a sen iority basis by promotion of qualified brakemen. To qualify for promotion, a man usually must have several years’ experience as a brakeman, and pass examinations covering signals, air brakes, timetables, operating rules, and related subjects. On some roads, those who have qualified for pro motion are first given temporary assignments as conductors while they are still working as brakemen. On other roads, brakemen promoted to con ductor positions are put on the extra board where they are given temporary assignments as men are needed. In either case, as regular conductor as signments become available, they are assigned to the men with the greatest seniority. On most roads, conductors in yard service and in road service have separate seniority lists, and they usually remain in one of these two types of service throughout their careers. A few roads, however, start conductors on yard assignments and then move them to freight service and finally to passenger service. The conductor is the member of the train crew who has the most direct contact with the public and it is important that he be able to act effec tively as the railroad’s representative. Conduc tors who show special ability of this kind may advance to managerial positions such as trainmaster. 765 RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS tronic car classification systems and communica tions equipment, the number of conductors may continue to decline in the remainder of the 1960’s. However, employment in this occupation is ex pected to stabilize or increase slightly in the early 1970’s as a result of the anticipated growth in railroad freight traffic. Earnings and Working Conditions Conductor and brakeman report on freight train trip. Employment Outlook There will be a moderate number of opportuni ties for brakemen to be promoted to jobs as conductors during the 1965-75 decade. Conduc tors comprise one of the oldest age groups in the Nation’s work force, and job openings will develop to replace those who retire, die, or leave railroad ing for some other reason. The number of conductors on class I line-haul railroads declined from about 45,200 in 1955 to 37,400 in 1964, owing to the decline of passenger traffic, the trend toward longer freight trains, and the mechanization of yard operations. As more and more yard work is speeded up by the use of the new devices such as electric and elec The type of service in which they are employed and the number of cars in their trains determine the basic earnings of conductors. In 1964, yard conductors employed by class I line-haul railroads earned an average of $713 a month. In road freight service, conductors averaged $860 monthly. The average for passenger conductors was $840 and for assistant passenger conductors and ticket collectors $758 a month. In 1964, conductors in yard service worked a basic 8-hour day and 5-day week. For work be yond these hours, they were paid one and onehalf times their basic wage rates. The pay received by passenger and freight conductors is based on a combination of miles traveled and hours worked. Under this practice these conduc tors may receive more for a trip than their basic day’s pay. Like all other road crew members, conductors in freight or passenger service are often sched uled to work nights, weekends, and on holidays. Conductors on extra board work often have very irregular hours. They may also work less time than conductors with regular assignments and, therefore, earn less. Conductors on every major railroad are cov ered by union contracts. Freight and passenger conductors are represented principally by the Order of Railway Conductors and Brakemen (Ind.) or the Brotherhood of Railroad Train men. Yard conductors (or yard foremen) are organized by the Brotherhood of Railroad Train men and the Switchmen’s Union of North America. 766 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Brakemen (2d ed. D.O.T. 5-38.010 and .020) (3d ed. D.O.T. 910.364 and .884) Nature of Work Brakemen work with the conductors as mem bers of the train crews on freight and passenger trains and in the railroad yards. One brakeman (or “flagman”) is generally stationed in the rear of each freight and passenger train; his duties include seeing that the proper flags, warning lights, and other signals are displayed at the rear of the train in order to protect it while it is in motion and at stops. Most freight and pas senger trains carry at least one other brakeman stationed in the front end of the train whose duties include setting out signals to protect the front of the train at unexpected stops. Before a train leaves the station, the brakemen in road service check the air brake equipment on the cars and see that tools and other equipment are in their proper places. During a run, they make frequent visual inspections of their train from positions at both the head and rear end of their train, looking for smoke, sparks or other indications of sticking brakes, overheated car bearings, or other equipment malfunctions. At stops during the run, they make “walking inspec tions” of the cars in the train and, when necessary, couple and uncouple cars and air hose. They are responsible for regulating the air-conditioning, lighting, and heating equipment in passenger cars. Brakemen in passenger service (also known as “trainmen”) sometimes have the added duty of assisting the conductor by collecting tickets and generally looking after the needs of the passengers. Yard brakemen (frequently called “switchmen” or “helpers”) assist in making up and breaking up trains by throwing switches, coupling and uncoupling freight and passenger cars, and applying or releasing handbrakes on cars to control car movement. Yard brakemen may advance to positions as yard conductors; usually they stay in yard serv ice throughout their railroad careers. On some roads, brakemen in road service may move from freight service to passenger work, usually consid ered more desirable because it is less strenuous than freight service and sometimes involves shorter working hours. When they have acquired sufficient seniority, brakemen in road service may advance to posi tions as conductors. Less frequently, they take positions as baggagemen. Conductor positions are nearly always filled by promoting brakemen who have qualified by passing written and oral ex aminations covering such subjects as signals, timetables, brake systems, and operating rules. Promotions are made according to seniority rules, and it may take up to 10 years or more for a brakeman to get his first assignment as a con ductor. Employment Outlook Several thousand opportunities for new work ers to obtain jobs as brakemen will develop each year through the mid-1970’s. Job openings will develop almost entirely as a result of retirements and deaths of conductors and brakemen and be cause of promotions and transfers to other work. The number of brakemen employed by class I line-haul railroads declined from about 101,000 in 1955 to 78,000 in 1964. During the 1960’s, work in railroad yards is expected to become increasingly mechanized, with the use of auto matic car retarders, automatic switching, and other devices. These developments are expected to result in a further decline in the employment of brakemen in the remainder of the 1960’s. How ever, the total number of brakemen is expected to stabilize or increase slightly in the early 1970’s as a result of the anticipated growth in railroad freight traffic. Earnings and Working Conditions The number of cars in the train and the type of service in which he is employed determine the earnings of a freight brakeman. The average monthly earnings of yard brakemen employed by class I line-haul railroads were $590 in 1964, Brakemen on freight trains averaged $726 a 769 RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS supervisory positions such as stationmaster or inspector. Employment Outlook A limited number of opportunities for assign ment to station agent jobs will arise each year through the mid-1970’s, principally because of the need to replace agents who retire or die. For some years the number of station agents employed by class I line-haul railroads has been declining; be tween 1955 and 1964, employment dropped from about 19,600 to 13,300 principally because some local passenger and freight services were consoli dated or discontinued. It is expected that the railroads will consolidate or discontinue some additional passenger and freight services over the next decade, with the result that the total number of station agents employed will decline further. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of station agents vary. In 1964, the earnings of agents who also served as tele graphers and telephoners on class I line-haul roads averaged $2.74 an hour; other agents at small stations who did not act as telegraphers averaged $2.92 an hour. Agents at major stations earned a straight-time average of $3.44 an hour. Agents are paid either by the hour or by the month; those in nonsupervisory positions had a basic 40-hour workweek, and time and one-half was paid for overtime work. Most agents who handled the business of the Railway Express Agency received, in addition to their regular pay, a commission on the business transacted. Station agents, with the exception of some supervisory agents, are members of the Trans portation-Communication Employees Union. Clerks (2d ed. D.O.T. 1-01.31; 1-11.02 through .15; 1-18.74, .93, .97; 1-26.03; 1-31.01, .10; 1-34.02, .04; 1-36.01) (3d ed. D.O.T. 219.388 and .488; 222.368 through .687; 229.367; 231.682; 249.368 ; 910.368 through .688; 913.168; and 919.138) Nature of Work Railroad clerks handle the huge volume of paper work necessary to keep an account of each piece of rolling stock, and transact business with freight shippers and the traveling public. They work in railroad stations, freight houses, yards, terminals, and company offices. Clerks make up the largest single group of railroad employees— class I line-haul railroads employed about 102,600 of these workers In 1964, and short-line railways, thousands more. The majority of railroad clerks—61,800 on class I line-haul railroads in 1964—do clerical work connected with business transactions such as col lecting bills, investigating complaints, adjusting claims, tracing shipments, compiling statistics, selling tickets, and keeping books. In small offices and stations, one man may perform duties related to several of these jobs, but in large offices with many employees, each clerk usually handles a specialized job. A second group, totaling 17,800 in 1964, con sists of secretaries, stenographers, typists, and operators of calculating, bookkeeping, and other kinds of office machines. They perform duties similar to those of workers in the same kinds of jobs in other industries. (Information about the nature of the duties of employees in these clerical jobs may be found elsewhere in the Handbook.) About 9,800 other railroad clerks were in higher grade “senior” jobs involving more respon sible or technical work. Some of the clerks in this group prepare the statistics on employment, traffic, and other matters relating to railroad operations, required periodically by the Federal Government. Others, called “cashiers,” deal with customers on such matters as uncollected freight bills. Still others do accounting work related to their companies’ use of terminals and other facili ties owned jointly by several roads. A fourth group are the supervisory and chief clerks, who numbered about 12,100. They not only supervise the work of other railroad clerks and assume responsibility for the clerical activi ties of entire departments, but they may be called on to deal with highly complex problems related to the business end of railroad operations. 770 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Beginning railroad clerk positions are often filled by hiring newcomers or by promoting workers such as office boys or messengers. A high school education usually is required, and clerical aptitude tests are sometimes given. Railroads prefer workers who have had training or some experience in working with figures. In some clerical positions—yard clerk for instance—be ginning workers on some roads are assigned to extra board work, where they work on tempo rary assignments until such time as regular as signments become available. In many offices, a railroad clerk may advance to assistant chief clerk, or to a higher administra tive position. Some clerks may move from routine jobs to work requiring special knowledge of sub jects such as accounting or statistics, and this work may lead eventually to positions as auditors or statisticians. Railroad clerks may also be pro moted to jobs as traffic agents, buyers, store keepers, or ticket and station agents. Employment Outlook Several thousand job opportunities for new workers will become available each year through the mid-1970’s. Because this is a large occupa tional group, retirements, deaths, and transfers to other fields of work will create many openings for new clerical workers. Employment in this occupational group has been declining. In 1955, class I line-haul rail roads employed about 146,000 railroad clerks; by 1964, their number was 102,600. A continued decrease in the employment of these workers is expected during the remainder of the 1960's as electronic business machines do more of the work formerly done by railroad clerks in processing freight bills and recording information about freight car movements and freight yard opera tions. However, employment of clerical workers is expected to level off or increase slightly in the early 1970’s as a result of the anticipated expansion of railroad freight traffic. Railroad clerk checks car number in freight yard. Earnings and Working Conditions Employees of class I line-haul railroads who had clerical jobs involving work such as billing operations, filing, and inventory control, received average straight-time pay of $2.69 an hour in 1964. Secretaries, stenographers, typists, and office machine operators averaged $2.66 an hour; senior clerks and specialists averaged $3.01 an hour; and supervisory and chief clerks, $3.19 an hour. Railroad clerks in nonsupervisory positions work a basic 8-hour day and 40-hour week, with time and one-half paid for overtime. The Brotherhood of Railway and Steamship Clerks, Freight Handlers, Express and Station Employees represents the railroad clerks on all major roads. 771 RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS Shop Trades Nature of Work The skilled workers employed by the railroads to build, maintain, and repair rolling stock and other equipment may be classified in six main “shop crafts” : Cairmen (D.O.T. 622.381), ma chinists, electrical workers, sheet-metal ivorkers, boilermakers, and blacksmiths. They work in railway shops, enginehouses, yards, and terminals. In 1964, about 98,800 journeymen mechanics in these six crafts were employed by class I line-haul railways. Working with them were 5,600 gang foremen and leaders, 12,750 helpers, and 3,775 apprentices. Several thousand more workers in the same occupations were employed by short-line railways. Carmen, who numbered about 53,600 on class I line-haul railroads in 1964, are by far the largest group of shop craftsmen. They do many different kinds of work, since they build, main tain, and repair railroad freight and passenger cars, and also work on locomotives and on small vehicles such as the motor-driven cars used in transporting workers along the tracks. Most car men are skilled in carpentry and can use power equipment as well as handtools. A few are skilled only in specialities such as upholstering, car painting, and patternmaking. Some carmen work as car inspectors in the railroad yards and stations, examining cars for defects that might lead to accidents or delays. Machinists are the second largest group of skilled shop workers. About 21,100 were em ployed in 1964, doing such work as assembling and dismantling equipment, and replacing and repairing parts. Electrical workers, who num bered about 13,900 in 1964, install and maintain wiring and electrical equipment in locomotives, passenger cars, and cabooses, as well as in build ings owned by the railroads. (Another group of electrical workers—nearly 2,350 in 1964—em ployed mainly away from the shop, lay power and communications lines for equipment used by the railroads.) Sheet-metal workers, numbering about 6,600, install and maintain light sheet-metal parts and do pipefitting on cars, locomotives, and other equipment. Boilermakers, of whom there were about 1,900, maintain and repair stationary boilers, tanks, and other parts made of sheet iron or heavy sheet steel. Other craftsmen employed in the shops include blacksmiths, molders, sta tionary firemen, oilers, and stationary engineers (steam). (More information about the nature of the work of most of the above shop trades may be found elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Apprenticeship is the usual way of entering the shop trades. Apprentices are trained in all branches of their respective trades, according to standards which in many cases are included in agreements negotiated by the shopmen’s trade unions and the railroad companies. Upon com pletion of their training, they are certified as qualified journeymen. Beginners, with no pre vious experience in their chosen trades, take this training as regular apprentices, generally for a 4-year period. Men with at least 2 years of pre vious work experience in the trade train as helper apprentices for a 3-year period. Shop worker checks for flaws in locomotive axles. 772 To become a regular apprentice, the applicant must be at least 16 and not over 21 years of age. The railroads prefer that helpers entering the 3-year apprentice training be no older than 30 or 35. On some roads, applicants for regular apprentice training are required to pass mathe matical and mechanical aptitude tests. Workers in the shop trades may advance to supervisory positions as foremen in shops, enginehouses, and powerplants. Employment Outlook There will be several hundred opportunities for new workers to obtain jobs either as helpers or as apprentices in the shop crafts each year during the next decade. In 1964, apprenticeship programs operated by class I line-haul railroads were training about 3,775 new workers, 3,600 of them as regular apprentices. Openings in the skilled shop crafts will result primarily from the need to replace experienced craftsmen who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. The number of journeymen mechanics employed in these crafts declined from about 147,000 in 1955 to 98,800 in 1964, and some further decline appears likely through the mid1970’s despite the fact that more rolling stock will be needed to handle the anticipated increase in freight traffic. Among the factors which are mak ing it possible for the railroads to handle a given amount of work in the shops with a smaller work force than formerly are the use of assembly line techniques in repair work, greater specialization of labor, and the use of better designed and con structed rolling stock. Fewer equipment mainte nance employees are needed, also, because of the practice on some railroads of sending diesel loco motives requiring major overhaul back to the manufacturer for rebuilding or in exchange for more highly powered new, or rebuilt units. Employment trends for individual shop crafts have not been affected equally by changes in equipment and operating methods, nor are they likely to be in the future. Two extremes in shop craft employment trends are represented by elec trical workers and boilermakers. During the 1955-64 period, when the total number of skilled craftsmen in the six principal shop trades de OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK creased by one-third, the number of electrical workers declined about 25 percent. Some increase in employment of electrical workers may occur during the next 10 years because of the almost universal use of diesel-electric power and the in stallation of more complex electrical and elec tronic equipment in locomotives, railroad cars, and communication systems. On the other hand, the decline that has already taken place in the number of boilermakers employed in the shops— from about 4,300 in 1955 to 1,875 in 1964—is ex pected to continue, because the skills of these workers are required much less in the repair of diesel locomotives than in the repair of steam locomotives. In the case of carmen and ma chinists, who together account for about threefourths of all journeymen mechanics employed in the shop crafts, the decline since 1955 in the num ber employed has been roughly one-third; some further decline, although less pronounced, is ex pected through the mid-1970’s. Earnings and Working Conditions Straight-time average hourly earnings of jour neymen employed by class I line-haul railroads in the shop trades in 1964 were: Carmen $2.78; machinists $2.77; electrical workers $2.78; sheetmetal workers $2.77; boilermakers $2.85; and blacksmiths $2.83. Straight-time earnings of helpers in all shop crafts averaged $2.50 an hour; regular apprentices, who spend part of their time in classroom instruction and the rest on the job, averaged $2.32 an hour; and helper-apprentices, who also worked on the same basis, averaged $2.52 an hour; gang foremen and gang leaders averaged $3.29 an hour. Most shop workers have a basic 40-hour workweek of five 8-hour days, and are paid time and one-half for overtime work. Major repairs on locomotives and cars are gen erally made indoors in the enginehouse or car repair shop. Minor adjustments, inspection, and emergency repairs may be performed out-ofdoors. Most shop workers are members of unions. Among the unions in this field are: Brotherhood of Railway Carmen of America; International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Work ers ; International Brotherhood of Electrical 773 RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS Workers; Sheet Metal Workers’ International As sociation; International Brotherhood of Boiler makers, Iron Shipbuilders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers; and the International Brotherhood of Firemen and Oilers. In collective bargaining, these unions usually negotiate their labor con tracts through the Railroad Employees’ Depart ment of the AFL-CIO. Signal Department Workers (2d ed. D.O.T. 5-79.170 and 7-79.170) (3d ed. D.O.T. 822.281 and .884) Nature of Work Workers in railroad signal departments con struct, install, maintain, and repair the signal ing systems which control the movement of trains and assure the safety of railroad travel. One group of skilled workers, known as signal maintainers, is responsible for keeping wires, lights, switches, and other controlling devices in good operating condition. The work requires a thorough practical knowledge of electricity and considerable mechanical skill. Work on the newer signaling systems also requires a knowledge of electronics. A second skilled group, known as signalmen, generally has the same skills and knowledge required of maintainers, but is primarily con cerned with constructing and installing new signals and signal systems. Signalmen work as members of crews which also include semiskilled workers. The crews travel from one part of the road to another, wherever construction work is underway. In constructing a signal system, crews often build forms for concrete, mix and pour cement, weld metal, and do many other types of work in addition to electrical work. In 1964, class I line-haul railroads employed about 9,500 men in this kind of work; included were about 7,200 signalmen and signal maintain ers, about 1,300 semiskilled assistants, and 900 helpers. Several hundred workers in these groups were also employed by the short-line railways and by switching and terminal companies: New employees start as helpers doing work under the direction of experienced men, or as as sistants, if they have had previous experience in signal work. Helpers, after about 1 year of train ing on the job, usually advance to the job of assistant. Openings for signalmen and signal maintainers are filled, as they occur, by promoting qualified assistants according to seniority rules. It generally takes at least 4 years for an assistant to work up to a position as signalman or signal maintainer. Both signalmen and signal maintainers may be promoted to more responsible positions such as those of inspectors or testmen, gang foremen, leading signalmen, or leading signal maintainers. A few may advance to positions as assistant super visors or signal engineers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Railroads prefer that applicants for entry jobs in the signal department be between 18 and 35 years of age and have a high school education or its equivalent. Knowledge of electricity and mechanical skill are assets to young men seeking these jobs. Signal maintainer checks board which controls speed of cars. 774 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employment Outlook There will be some opportunities for new workers to obtain entry jobs as helpers or assist ants during the 1965-75 decade. Most of these opportunities will result from the need to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Job openings for new workers will be limited because men furloughed in recent years will be recalled before new men are hired. Employment of helpers and assistants declined from about 4,641 in 1955 to 1,300 in 1964, and the number of skilled signalmen and signal maintainers declined from about 8,800 to 7,200. These occupations are expected to continue to decline during the remainder of the 1960’s, after which they are expected to stabilize or increase slightly. While the installation of new equipment has ini tially increased signal work opportunities, the overall effect has been declining maintenance and repair requirements. Earnings and Working Conditions The average straight-time hourly earnings of signalmen and signal maintainers employed by class I line-haul railroads in 1964 were $2.87. Assistant signalmen and signal maintainers aver aged $2.63 and helpers $2.51 an hour. Signal workers have a basic 8-hour day and 5-day week, and are paid time and one-half for work beyond 8 hours a day. Signal maintainers tend to have fairly steady work, because the amount of work required for maintaining railroad signal systems does not change greatly with variations in traffic or with the seasons. Signalmen and other crew members, particularly on some northern roads, may have less work during periods of especially bad weather. Workers in both of these occupations do most of their work out of doors, and main tainers must be prepared to make repairs regard less of the time of day or the weather conditions. Both maintainers and signalmen, when working on signaling devices, must often climb poles and work near high-tension electric wires and un guarded railroad tracks. Signalmen and other crew members who work on construction and installation, frequently work away from their homes; on these occasions, many railroads provide camp cars for living quarters while the men pay for their own food. Maintainers are generally able to live at home, since they maintain signals only over a limited stretch of track. Most signal workers are members of the Brotherhood of Railroad Signalmen. Track Workers (2d ed. D.O.T. 0-98.71, 7-23.121, 9-32.01, and 9-49.30) (3d ed. D.O.T. 182.168 ; 859.883 ; 869.887 ; 910.782; and 919.887) Nature of Work Trackmen and portable equipment operators construct, maintain, and repair railroad tracks and roadways. Many of them work in section crews which patrol and maintain a limited sec tion of the railroad’s right-of-way. Some roads combine the section crews with highly mechan ized crews to cover longer stretches of the rightof-way. Still other track workers are employed in “extra” crews. These men perform seasonal maintenance and repair work, such as replacing rails. Either a member of the section crew, or track workers operating track motorcars, make regu lar inspections of the right-of-way, looking for cracked rails, weak ties, washed-out ballast, and other track and roadway defects. Trackmen and portable equipment operators working in the crews then make the necessary repairs. Roadway maintenance machines, such as multiple tie tampers, power wrenches, and ballast cleaners, have been gradually displacing the use of such handtools as picks, shovels, and spike hammers. More and more railroads are using roadway machines, which require skilled operators, to do heavy maintenance-of-way work once done by trackmen using hand or pneumatically powered tools. In 1964, an average of 63,600 track workers were employed by class I line-haul railroads. They included 43,000 trackmen working in crews, 8,600 portable equipment operators and helpers, and 8,700 gang foremen. Additional thousands of these workers were employed by the short-line 775 RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS Employment Outlook railroads. The size of this maintenance-of-way work force varies considerably during the year because many construction and repair jobs are done in the summer months when the weather is best. Several thousand new workers will be hired each year in track maintenance occupations dur ing the 1965-75 decade. Most of these new work ers will be hired for the seasonal rush during the summer months, particularly in northern sections of the country. Comparatively few openings that occur will offer steady year-round employment. For some years, the use of mechanized equip ment and new kinds of materials in roadway con struction has been substantially reducing the number of men employed by the railroads in maintenance-of-way work. At the same time, however, the use of mechanized equipment has been creating a limited number of maintenanceof-way jobs involving the operation of roadway machines. Between 1955 and 1964, as the num ber of trackmen and foremen in section and other kinds of crews dropped from about 144,000 to 52,000, the number of portable equipment work ers rose from 7,500 to about 8,600. These trends are expected to continue in the years ahead. How ever, employment of track workers may stabilize or increase slightly in the early 1970’s as a result of the anticipated increase in railroad freight activity. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Earnings and Working Conditions Track workers operate ballast cleaning machine. Most track workers are trained on the job, and it takes up to 2 years to acquire the skills necessary to become an all-round trackman. Machine operating jobs in track maintenance work are assigned to qualified trackmen on the basis of seniority. Most roads prefer workers between the ages of 21 and 45 for their track work forces. Men seeking work as trackmen must be able to read and write and do heavy work. Applicants are often required to take physical examinations. A high school education is desirable for workers who are seeking to advance to positions as port able equipment operators and gang foremen. Trackmen and portable equipment operators with the necessary seniority and qualifications may advance to positions as gang foreman or assistant foreman. A qualified foreman may ad vance to a supervisory maintenance-of-way posi tion such as track supervisor. Track workers are among the lowest paid groups in the railroad industry. Men employed in section and other kinds of crews on class I line-haul railroads had straight-time average earnings of $2.31 an hour in 1964. Portable equipment operators and helpers averaged $2.62 and crew foremen averaged $2.63 an hour in 1964. A basic 5-day, 40-hour week was in force for most classes of track workers. Time worked in excess of 8 hours a day was paid for at time and one-half rates. Since most section men inspect and maintain only a few miles of track, they are usually able to live at home. However, the section crew is rapidly giving way to the mechanized “floating” crew. Trackmen and portable equipment oper ators who work in “floating” crews usually travel from place to place and generally live in camp cars or trailers provided by the railroads. They pay for their own food. Most maintenance-of-way workers are mem bers of the Brotherhood of Maintenance of Way Employees. 776 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Bridge and Building Workers Nature of Work These workers construct, maintain, and repair tunnels, bridges, stations, railway shops, and a variety of other structures owned by the rail roads. In 1964, class I line-haul railroads em ployed in this kind of work about 9,900 skilled craftsmen, 2,800 helpers, and 2,400 foremen. Among the skilled craftsmen wTere about 6,000 carpenters working as all-round mechanics in a variety of construction trades in addition to car pentry; about 2,700 masons, bricklayers, plas terers, and plumbers; and about 750 painters and 470 ironworkers. The short-line railways em ployed several hundred more workers in the same occupations. (Information about the nature of the work done by these craftsmen can be found elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement New employees usually receive their training as helpers. As openings occur in skilled mechan ics’ jobs, they are filled by helpers who have quali fied for promotion and have the necessary seniority. Skilled workers with the necessary experience may advance to positions as foremen, inspectors, or bridge and building supervisors. Employment Outlook A small number of job openings in the bridge and building work force will arise each year during the next 10 years. Retirements, deaths, and transfers to other fields of work will provide some job opportunities for new workers. Most of the jobs available will be as beginners or helpers, where turnover rates are relatively high. Employment by class I line-haul railroads of skilled craftsmen, helpers, and foremen on bridge and building work decreased from about 27,300 in 1955 to 15,100 in 1964. This trend is expected to continue because the increased use of powder tools and other laborsaving equipment, and of new materials which require less maintenance and repair, will cut down further on the number of men needed for construction and maintenance work. However, increased railroad freight ac tivity projected for the early 1970’s may cause em ployment of these workers to stabilize or even increase slightly. Earnings and Working Conditions The average straight-time hourly earnings of carpenters employed by class I line-haul rail roads in bridge and building work in 1964 were $2.62. Masons, bricklayers, plasterers, and plumb ers averaged $2.76, ironworkers $2.82, painters $2.65, helpers $2.46, and foremen $2.91 an hour in 1964. Bridge and building workers work a 5-day, basic 40-hour week and are paid time and one-half for work beyond 8 hours a day, and may receive double time for work over 16 continuous hours. Bridge and building men usually are away from home during their workweek. On these occasions, they usually live in camp cars supplied by the railroads. While living in camp cars, they pay for their own food. The Brotherhood of Maintenance of Way Em ployees represents the bridge and building work ers on most roads. RESTAURANT INDUSTRY Millions of people eat in restaurants, cafeterias, snack bars, and other eating places daily. There are about 335,000 establishments whose main busi ness is to serve food and beverages; and in 1965, they employed about 1.9 million persons. Many other food-service workers were employed in establishments that serve meals in connection with some other activity—for example, drug and de partment stores, hotels, hospitals, schools operat ing lunchrooms for students and staff, and fac tories operating cafeterias for employees. (See statements on the two largest restaurant occupa tions—Waiters and Waitresses and Cooks and Chefs.) Nature and Location Establishments catering to the custom of “eat ing out” range from small diners to luxurious and expensive restaurants. The kind of food offered and the way it is served depend upon the size, lo cation, and financing of the restaurant, as well as the type of customer it seeks to attract. For ex ample, cafeterias, which are usually located down town or in an office building or factory, emphasize rapid service and inexpensive meals. In contrast, some restaurants cater to customers who have the time to eat in a leisurely manner and, thus, they serve elaborate meals which may include unusual dishes or “specialties of the house.” Most restaurants are small businesses with fewer than 10 paid employees; many of these are op erated by their owners with no paid help or with only 1 or 2 part-time workers. A small propor tion of all restaurants are run by proprietors or business firms owning more than one restaurant. Although restaurant employment is concen trated in the States with the largest populations, and particularly in large cities, even very small communities usually have coffee shops, lunch eonettes, and roadside diners. groups, each with several hundred thousands of workers, are waiters and waitresses and cooks and chefs. In addition to these two groups, there are counter attendants who serve food to customers in cafeterias; bartenders who mix and serve alcoholic drinks to customers; busboys and busgirls who clear tables, carry soiled dishes back to the kitchen, and sometimes set tables; kitchen workers who wash dishes and prepare vegetables; pantrymen and pantrywomen who prepare salads and certain other dishes for serving; and janitors and porters who dispose of trash and garbage, sweep and mop floors, and do other cleaning jobs. Some of these workers operate mechanical equip ment, such as powerdriven dishwashers, floor polishers, vegetable slicers and peelers, and garbage disposal equipment. These specialized service jobs, however, are likely to be found only in the largest restaurants. In many small eating places, waiters and waitresses clear and set up tables, sometimes prepare certain kinds of dishes, and help in the kitchen when they are not busy with customers. Restaurant Workers More than three-fourths of all restaurant em ployees prepare and serve food, or do other kinds of related service work. The two largest service 777 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 778 Another large group of restaurant workers— about one-sixth of the total—are managers and proprietors. Many are owners and operators of small restaurants and, in addition to acting as managers, may do cooking and other work. Some are salaried employees managing restaurants for others. All other restaurant workers combined account for about one-tenth of total industry employ ment. They are employed principally in large restaurants. Most are clerical employees—cashiers who receive payments and make change for customers; food checkers who total the cost of the meals selected by cafeteria customers; and book keepers, stenographers, typists, and other office workers. Some large restaurants also employ mechanics and other maintenance workers, ac countants, personnel workers, and musicians or other entertainers. Employment Outlook More than 150,000 openings are expected an nually in the restaurant industry through the mid-1970’s. Although many new jobs will be created by the growth of the restaurant business, most openings will result from turnover. Most job openings will be for waitresses and kitchen helpers—both because of high turnover and be cause these workers make up a very large propor tion of all restaurant employees. Employment op portunities also are expected to be favorable for skilled cooks and salaried restaurant managers. There will be a number of openings in clerical jobs such as cashier, bookkeeper, stenographer, and typist, and a few in specialized positions such as food manager and dietitian. The volume of restaurant business is expected to increase substantially over the next decade and the number of restaurant workers will rise very rapidly. A growing population, increasing leisure time, and higher income levels, will raise the demand for restaurant services. More people will “eat out” as large numbers of housewives take outside employment and more people travel. Res taurants, hotel and motel dining rooms, school and factory lunchrooms, drugstore fountains, and even vending machines which dispense prepared foods will share in the increased business. Manpower changes taking place within the restaurant industry will tend to reduce the num ber of employees needed to prepare and serve food. Restaurants—particularly those serving hundreds of meals daily—have achieved sub stantial reductions in manpower requirements during recent years, as managers have centralized the purchase of food supplies, introduced selfservice, made use of precut meats and modern mechanical equipment, and otherwise increased the efficiency of their operations. Although further improvements of this kind can be ex pected, the number of restaurant employees is likely to increase very rapidly as the volume of business continues to expand to meet the popula tion’s need for restaurant services. Earnings and Working Conditions Information about wages of nonsupervisory employees in restaurants with 10 workers or more is available from a study of 24 metropolitan areas made by the Bureau of Eabor Statistics in June 1963. Wage levels were generally lowest in southern cities and highest on the West Coast, as the following tabulation shows. (For earnings of waiters and waitresses, and cooks and chefs, see statements on these occupations.) In res taurants and communities smaller than those in cluded in the BLS survey, wage levels may be somewhat lower than the averages shown below. M en B a r te n d e r s (p u b lic b a r s ). B u s b o y s ________ __ C a feteria c o u n te r a tte n d a n ts . P o r te r s ____ ______ D is h w a s h e r s ______ K itc h e n h e l p e r s .. . P a n t r y m e n ________ Average hourly wages, 1963 Highest $3.01 (S a n la n d ). 1.72 (S a n la n d ). 2.08 (S a n la n d ). 2.00 (S a n la n d ) . 1.79 (S a n la n d ). 1.94 (S a n la n d ). 2.45 (S a n la n d ). F r a n c is c o -O a k - Low est $1.39 (M ia m i) F r a n c is c o -O a k - .54 (M e m p h is ) F r a n c is c o -O a k - .84 ( N e w O rleans) F r a n c is c o -O a k - .68 (M e m p h is ) F r a n c is c o -O a k - .56 (M e m p h is ) F r a n c is c o -O a k - .61 ( M e m p h is ) F r a n c is c o -O a k - .96 (K a n s a s C ity ) W omen B u s g ir ls ___________ 1.73 (S a n F r a n c is c o -O a k la n d ). .51 (M e m p h is ) C a feteria c o u n te r a tte n d a n ts . P o r te r s ____________ K itc h e n h e lp e r s . 1.94 (S a n F r a n c is c o -O a k la n d ) . 1.48 ( C h ic a g o )____ __________ .76 (A tla n ta ) D is h w a s h e r s ______ C h e c k e r -c a sh ie r s .. , F o o d c h e c k e r s_____ P a n t r y w o m e n ____ 2.25 (S a n la n d ). 1.81 (S a n la n d ). 2.27 (S a n la n d ). 2.07 (S a n la n d ). 2.03 (S a n la n d ). F r a n c is c o -O a k - .71 (A tla n ta ) .50 ( M e m p h is ) F r a n c is c o -O a k - .50 (M e m p h is ) F r a n c is c o -O a k - 1.06 (M e m p h is ) F r a n c is c o -O a k - .93 (M ia m i) F r a n c is c o -O a k - .68 (M e m p h is ) 779 RESTAURANT INDUSTRY Within each of the metropolitan areas surveyed, the wages of individual workers in the same oc cupation differed considerably, depending on the size and type of restaurant in which they were employed. In the San Francisco-Oakland area, for example, a few men employed as dishwashers were paid less than $1.30 an hour, others received more than $2.10 an hour. In addition to wages, restaurant employees usually received at least one free meal each day and were often provided uni forms. Waiters, waitresses, and bartenders also receive tips. Most of the restaurant workers included in the 1963 survey had work schedules of 40 hours or more a week; many, especially in southern and north-central cities, had a scheduled 48-hour work week. In one area—San Francisco-Oakland—the workweek of most employees was 37% hours. Restaurant employees often work on split shifts; they are on duty for several hours during one meal, take some time off, and then return to work during the next period of heavy activity. Scheduled hours may include work in the late evening and on holidays and weekends. A majority of restau rant workers in the 24 areas surveyed received 1 week of paid vacation after 1 year of service and in most areas, 2 weeks or more after 2 years. Pro vision for paid holidays and various types of health and insurance benefits were also common in many areas. Many restaurants are air conditioned, have con venient work areas, and are furnished with the latest equipment and laborsaving devices. In other restaurants—particularly small ones—work ing conditions may be less desirable. In all res taurants, workers spend long periods on their feet, and may be required to lift heavy trays and other objects, or work near hot ovens or steam tables. Work hazards include the possibility of burns and injury from knives, broken glass or china, or mechanical equipment. The principal union in the restaurant industry is the Hotel and Restaurant Employees and Bartenders International Union (AFE-CIO). The proportion of workers covered by union con tract agreements, however, varies greatly from city to city. For example, in the San FranciscoOakland area, more than 90 percent of the nonoffice employees were in establishments with union contract agreements in 1963; in Atlanta, Balti more, Denver, Indianapolis, Memphis, and New Orleans the proportion was less than 10 percent. Where To G o for More Information Additional information about careers in the food service industry may be obtained by writing to : Educational Director, National Restaurant Association, 1530 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, 111. 60610. Information on food service occupations is also available in : F o o d S e r v ic e I n d u s tr y : T r a in in g P r o g r a m s a n d F a c ili t i e s (U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Bulletin 298, 1961). Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C. 20402. Price 65 cents. A list of public and private schools and colleges offering courses which train restaurant employees may be obtained by writing to : Council on Hotel, Restaurant and Institutional Education, S ta tle r H a ll, C ornell U n iv ersity , Ith a ca , N.Y. 14850. Additional information about wages in res taurants is available in : I n d u s tr y W a g e S u r v e y : E a tin g a n d D r in k in g P la c e s , 1 9 6 3 (BLS Bulletin 1400, 1964). Superin tendent of Documents, Washington, D.C. 20402. Price 40 cents. June TELEPHONE INDUSTRY OCCUPATIONS As our population and economy grow, and as technology improves, the need for communication increases. More than 300 million telephone calls are made daily in the United States, both locally and for long distances to different parts of the country and overseas. More than 700,000 em ployees were required to provide this service in early 1965. The telephone industry offers men and women many employment opportunities for steady, yearround work in many different jobs. Some of the jobs, such as telephone operator and file clerk, can be learned in a few weeks; other jobs, such as installer and repairman, take several years to learn. More than half of all telephone workers are women. They are employed primarily as tele phone operators or clerical workers. Men are usually employed in installing, repairing, and maintaining telephone equipment. Nature and Location of the Industry Providing telephone service for the many mil lions of residential, commercial, and industrial customers is the main work of the Nation’s tele phone companies. More than 86 million tele phones were in use in the United States in 1965, about 75 percent of them by residential customers. Telephone jobs are found in almost every com munity in the United States. Most telephone workers, however, are employed in large cities with concentrations of industrial and business establishments. Nearly three-fifths of them work in the 10 States with the largest number of tele phones: New York, California, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Ohio, Texas, Michigan, New Jersey, Massachusetts, and Indiana. The nerve center of the local telephone system is the central office containing the switching equipment through which any telephone may be connected with any other telephone. Every tele phone call made, whether by dialing or signaling 780 the operator, travels from the caller through wires and cables to the cable vault in the central office. Thousands of pairs of wires fan out from the cable vault to a distributing frame where each set of wires is attached to switching equipment. To join the caller’s telephone to the telephone he is calling, connections are made automatically, mainly by electro-mechanical switching equip ment. Manual connections may also be made by the operator in the few remaining manually op erated switchboards, or in unusual situations. Long-distance calls are dialed by the customer or an operator and connected through switching equipment with the telephone called. By early 1965, about two-thirds of all telephone users could dial long-distance calls directly. Information needed to bill the customer may be recorded auto matically or, especially in smaller exchanges, may be written on a ticket by the operator. Some customers make and receive so many calls that they cannot be handled on a single tele phone line. For these calls, a system somewhat similar to a miniature central office may be in stalled on the subscriber’s premises. This system is the private branch exchange (PB X ), usually found in such places as apartment and office buildings, hotels, department stores, and other business firms. Other communication services provided by tele phone companies include conference equipment in stalled at a PBX to permit conversations among several telephone users simultaneously; mobile radiotelephones in automobiles, boats, airplanes, and trains; and telephones equipped to answer calls automatically and to give and take mes sages by recordings. Telephone companies also build and maintain the vast network of cables and radio-relay sys tems for communication services, including those joining the thousands of broadcasting stations all over the Nation. These services are leased to net works and their affiliated stations. Telephone 781 TELEPHONE INDUSTRY companies also operate teletype and private-wire services which they lease to business and govern ment offices. The domestic telephone network is made up of two ownership groups—the Bell System and the independent telephone companies. Bell, through its associated companies, serves about 4 of every 5 of the Nation’s telephones while the independ ents serve the remainder. In early 1965, there were slightly less than 2,700 independent com panies. Telephone Occupations Making a telephone call requires workers in many occupations and a vast amount of com munications equipment. Chart 40 shows the per centage distribution of telephone employment by occupational group. Nearly 3 of every 10 workers in the industry are telephone craftsmen and about the same propor tion are telephone operators. Telephone crafts men install, repair, and maintain telephones, cables, switching equipment, and message account ing systems. These workers can be grouped by the type of work they perform: (1) Line conCHART 40 TELEPHONE INDUSTRY EMPLOYS AS MANY CRAFTSM EN AS OPERATORS . . . . Pe rc en t of total w o r k e r s , 1 9 6 4 O 10 20 Telephone crafts; Telephone Clerical workers Administrative an personnel Scientific and personnel Maintenance and building service Source: Based on data from the Federal Com m unications Com m ission. 30 40 struction men place, splice, and maintain tele phone wires and cables; (2) installers and re pairmen place, maintain and repair telephones and private branch exchanges (PBX) in homes and in offices and other places of business; and (3) central office craftsmen test, maintain, and repair equipment in central offices. The duties of the operators include making telephone connections; assisting customers on specialized types of calls, for example, reverse-charge calls; and giving telephone information. Telephone craftsmen are discussed in detail later in this chapter. A detailed discussion of telephone operators and operators of private branch exchanges (PBX operators) is presented in a separate statement elsewhere in the Handbook. When central office equipment is purchased by a telephone company, it is usually installed by employees of the equipment manufacturers. A few central office equipment installers work for telephone companies or private firms specializing in installation work. Although most of these skilled workers are not employed in telephone operating companies, they are discussed in this chapter because their work is so closely connected with the Nation’s telephone system. Many other occupations in the telephone in dustry, such as clerical, administrative, scientific, and custodial jobs, are found in other industries as well. They are described in detail elsewhere in the Handbook, in the sections covering individual occupations. More than a fifth (22 percent) of all telephone industry employees are clerical workers, such as stenographers, typists, bookkeepers, office machine operators, cashiers, receptionists, file clerks, accounting and auditing clerks, and payroll clerks. Among their other duties, these clerical workers, most of whom are women, keep records of services, make up and send bills to customers, and prepare statistical and other reports. A small but growing amount of this recordkeeping and statistical work is being done by electronic data-processing equipment. About 13 percent of telephone company employ ees are business office and sales representatives, who handle orders for new telephone services, and administrative and professional workers, such as accountants, attorneys, personnel special- 782 ists, purchasing agents, public relations employ ees, training specialists, and statisticians. A small but increasing proportion (4 percent) of the industry’s employees are scientific and tech nical personnel; for example, engineers and their assistants and draftsmen. Most of these workers plan and design the construction of new buildings and the expansion of existing ones, and solve en gineering problems that arise in the day-to-day operations of the telephone system. Some engi neers are employed in sales development work. Many top supervisory and administrative jobs are held by men with engineering backgrounds. Basic research in communications systems and the development of new and improved telephone equipment are not done by employees of tele phone operating companies, but mainly by those employed in affiliated laboratories specializing in such work. The rest of the telephone industry’s workers (about 3 percent) maintain buildings, offices, and warehouses; operate and service motor vehicles; and do many other maintenance and service jobs in offices and plants. Skilled maintenance crafts men include stationary engineers, carpenters, painters, electricians, and plumbers. Other work ers employed by the telephone industry are jani tors, porters, watchmen, elevator operators, and guards. Employment Outlook Tens of thousands of new workers will be hired by telephone operating companies each year dur ing the 1965-75 decade, mainly to replace the large numbers of women telephone operators and clerical workers who leave the industry to marry, raise a family, or for other reasons. Some of these new workers, however, will be hired for craft jobs, to replace skilled workers who die, retire, or shift to other work. Telephone craftsmen are expected to retire in somewhat larger numbers than usual during the later 1960’s, as those hired in the 1920’s, when employment in the industry expanded greatly, reach retirement age. Job turnover will also create openings for administrative, sales, pro fessional, technical, and scientific personnel. Despite an anticipated growth in the amount and types of telephone service, total employment in the telephone industry is expected to remain OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK relatively unchanged. This is because technologi cal improvements are permitting more calls to be made without any assistance from an operator. However, operators will continue to be needed to handle the more complex calls. Clerical workers and many of the skilled craftsmen are also being affected by technological changes expected to re duce the total number of workers required for efficient telephone service. Occupational groups in which employment is expected to grow as the volume of business increases are sales, administra tive, professional, technical, and scientific per sonnel. Telephones in use are expected to continue to increase in number during the next 10 years at about the same annual rate of growth that pre vailed during the past 10 years. P art of the ex pansion will result from expected increases in the number of households, and the number of business and industrial establishments. The 11 million households in the United States without tele phones will be another factor in the demand for telephone service, especially as family incomes rise. Other factors are also expected to increase the demand for telephone services. For example, the popularity of extension telephones in private homes, and of telephones of different styles and colors, is increasing. A very recent development is the touch-tone instrument on which a set of buttons replaces the dial. This instrument enables the user to make a call in half the time required for a dial call. Also, there is growing use of specialized equipment on telephone instruments, such as volume controls that compensate for im paired hearing, and loudspeakers that permit “hands free” conversation. For industrial and commercial users, high speed transmission of large quantities of computer-processed and other data via telephone, teletypewriter, telephotograph, or facsimile are types of special services which are becoming more important. With high speed data transmission, for example, it is possible to publish the same newspaper almost simultaneously in two widely separated cities. To meet the in creasing demand for overseas communications, transoceanic service will continue to expand as more undersea cables are laid and communications satellites come into commercial use. 783 TELEPHONE INDUSTRY Earnings and Working Conditions Since wage rates in the telephone industry are geared to those for comparable work in the local ity, earnings of telephone workers depend not only on the type of job and the worker's previous training and experience, but also on location and character of the community. Because of differ ences in rates among regions and communities, considerable variation exists in the rates paid for any given telephone occupation. In general, tele phone wage rates are highest in the Pacific and Middle Atlantic States, and lowest in the South east. For the Nation as a whole, average basic hourly wage rates in December 1964 for all telephone employees, except officials and managerial assist ants, were $2.96. Rates for these workers ranged from an average of $1.74 an hour for telephone operator trainees and $2.11 for experienced tele phone operators, to $5.17 for professional and semiprofessional workers. Clerical workers in nonsupervisory positions averaged $2.28 an hour, while rates for the various telephone craft groups ranged from $2.67 to $4.62 an hour. A telephone employee usually starts at the minimum wage for his particular job. Pay in creases are given periodically until the top of the grade is reached, usually in about 5 or 6 years. Telephone craftsmen at the top of the grade may receive further merit increases, based on job per formance and length of service. More than two-thirds of the workers in the in dustry, mainly telephone operators and craftsmen, are members of labor unions. The Communica tions Workers of America represents the largest number of workers in the industry, but many other employees are members of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers or an inde pendent union, such as 1 of the 16 unions which form the Alliance of Independent Telephone Unions. Wage rates, wage increases, and the amount of time required to advance from one step to the next are governed for most telephone workers by union-management contracts. The contracts also call for extra pay for work beyond the normal tour of 6 to 8 hours a day or 5 days a week, and for all Sunday and holiday work. Most contracts provide that the rate of pay for nightwork shall be 5 or 10 percent above the basic day rate. 7 78-316 O -6 5 — — 51 Travel time to and from the job is counted as worktime for craftsmen under some contracts. Overtime work is sometimes required in the tele phone industry, especially during emergencies, such as floods, hurricanes, or bad storms. During an “emergency call-out,” which is a short-notice request to report to work during nonscheduled hours, workers are guaranteed a minimum period of pay at the basic hourly rate. In addition to these provisions which affect the pay envelope directly, other benefits are pro vided. Periods of annual vacations with pay are granted to workers according to their length of service. Usually, contracts provide for a 1-week vacation for 6 months to 1 year of service, 2 weeks for 1 to 10 years, 3 weeks for 10 to 25 years, and 4 weeks after 25 years. The number of paid holidays ranges from 6 to 11 days a year depend ing on locality. Nearly all contracts contain sick leave provisions. A typical program provides that payments for sick leave up to 7 days be paid to employees with at least 2 years of serv ice, after a waiting period of 1 to 3 days depend ing on length of service. Provisions for paid sick leave beyond 7 days are covered in benefit plans adopted by most companies. The majority of telephone workers are covered by group insur ance plans which usually provide sickness, acci dent, and death benefits, and retirement and disability pensions. The telephone industry has achieved one of the best safety records in American industry; in 1964, for example, the number of disabling injuries was less than one-sixth of the average for all U.S. industries. Where To G o for More Information Additional information about jobs in the tele phone industry many be obtained from the local telephone company or from local unions with telephone workers among their membership. If no local union is listed in the telephone directory, information may be obtained from the following: Alliance of Independent Telephone Unions, Room 302, 1422 Chestnut St., Philadelphia, Pa. 19102. Communications Workers of America, 1925 K St. NW.. Washington, D.C. 20006. International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 1200 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. 784 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Telephone Craftsmen Nearly a third of the employees of the telephone industry are craftsmen engaged in construction, installation, and maintenance activities necessary to assemble the vast amount of mechanical, elec trical, and electronic equipment vital to the far- reaching network of our modern communications system. About 1 in every 8 of these workers are foremen who have advanced to supervisory posi tions from a craft job. Central Office Craftsmen Nature of Work Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Central office craftsmen test, maintain, and re pair mechanical, electrical, and electronic switch ing equipment and other central office equipment. They keep this equipment in operating condition and locate potential trouble before service is af fected. Telephone companies employed about 65,000 central office craftsmen in early 1965, in cluding, for example, approximately 15,000 testboardmen and 48,000 central office repairmen, helpers, and framemen. Frameman (D.O.T. 822.884) is usually the be ginning job from which a worker may advance to a more skilled central office craft job. Framemen do most of their work at distributing frames or panels where customers’ lines come into the central office. Framemen string these wires to the proper terminals on the frames and then solder the connections. Connections are made according to worksheets prepared by others or according to oral directions of testboardmen. Central office repairmen (D.O.T. 822.281), often called switchmen, maintain and repair switching equipment and automatic message accounting sys tems in central offices. They check switches and relays, using special tools and gages and their knowledge of electricity. They also locate and repair trouble spots on customers' lines in central office equipment as reported by testboardmen. Testboardmen (D.O.T. 822.281) make periodic checks of customers’ lines to prevent breakdowns or interference in telephone service. They work at special switchboards made up of electrical test ing instruments and test for, locate, and analyze trouble spots reported on customers’ lines. If re pairs are needed and the breakdown is outside the central office, they direct the repair activities of line and cable crews or installer-repairmen or of central office repairmen (if the trouble is inside). The telephone companies usually hire inexperi enced men to train for skilled jobs in central offices. Applicants for these jobs must have at least a high school or vocational school education. A knowledge of the basic principles of electricity and electronics is generally desired. Telephone training and experience in the armed services or technical training beyond the high school level may be helpful in obtaining jobs as telephone company craftsmen; men with such training may be brought in above the entry level. Preemploy ment aptitude tests are usually given to prospec tive employees. Most telephone companies have regular pro grams for training new employees in central office craft jobs. A new worker may be given classroom instruction as well as on-the-job train ing. He is usually assigned to the starting job of frameman and works with experienced framemen under the direction of a supervisor or fore man. As the frameman gains skill and experi ence, he may advance to central office repairman or testboardman receiving such additional class room instruction or other training as may be required for the new job. Instruction includes courses such as the principles of electricity and electronics, as well as special courses in the main tenance of the particular type of central office equipment used by the company. Central office craftsmen receive training throughout their careers with the telephone company. As new types of equipment and tools are introduced and new maintenance methods are developed, these men may be sent to school for short periods of instruction. Usually it takes at least 6 years for workers to reach the top pay rate for central office repairmen or testboardmen. 785 TELEPHONE INDUSTRY The total number of central office craftsmen is expected to remain about the same during the next 10 years, despite the anticipated expan sion of the number of telephones in use and the increasingly complex nature of central office equipment. Recent technological developments, such as electronic switching and various auto matic testing devices, will reduce the amount of maintenance and repair work to be done in central offices. Earnings and Working Conditions Central office repairmen at test frames check functioning of switching equipment. Many workers move into central office craft jobs from other types of telephone work. For example, some men start as telephone installers or linemen and many, with additional training, transfer to jobs as central office craftsmen. Pro motional opportunities for central office crafts men include, in addition to the jobs of central office foremen, jobs such as those of engineering assistants and administrative staff workers. Employment Outlook Young men will find many opportunities for steady employment as central office craftsmen during the 1965-75 decade. These opportunities will result from the need to replace workers who retire, die, transfer to other telephone jobs, or leave the telephone industry. Retirements and deaths alone may result in about 3,000 job open ings each year during the next decade. Many more than the usual number of central office craftsmen are expected to retire in the later 1960’s, when those hired during the 1920’s—a period of increased employment—will reach retirement age. Most job openings created by turnover will be filled by workers who transfer from other tele phone craft jobs. Central office craftsmen are among the highest paid skilled workers in the telephone industry. In December 1964, average basic hourly rates of pay in large telephone companies in the United States were $3.32 for testboardmen and $3.19 for central office repairmen; average basic hourly rates ranged from $3.28 to $3.69 for test boardmen and from $3.06 to $3.34 for central office repairmen, depending on locality and length of service. Earnings increase considerably with length of service in central office jobs. According to a 1965 union-management contract in one of the higher pay scale cities, craft employees start at $73.50 for a 40-hour week. Framemen can work up to a maximum of $134.50 after 5 years. If a vacancy occurs and the worker is qualified, a frameman can move into the job of central office repairman or testboardman with a higher pay schedule. Central office repairmen and test boardmen can earn a maximum of $154.50 a week after 6 years of periodic increases. Craftsmen who qualify for engineering assistant jobs can earn a maximum of $210 a week after 6 years. Since the telephone industry gives continuous service to its customers, central offices operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Some central office craftsmen, therefore, have work schedules which include evenings, nights, and weekends, for which they receive extra pay. Central office craftsmen are covered by the same provisions governing overtime pay, vacations, holidays, and other bene fits that apply to telephone workers generally. (See discussion earlier in this chapter) Employ ees in central offices work in clean and well-lighted surroundings. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 786 Central Office Equipment Installers Nature of Work Central office equipment installers set up com plex switching and dialing equipment in central offices of local telephone companies. They as semble, wire, adjust, and test this equipment making sure that it conforms to the manufac turer’s standards for efficient and dependable service. These jobs may involve installing a new central office, adding equipment in an expanding local office, or modifying or replacing outmoded equipment. About 18,000 installers were employed in early 1965. Unlike the other craftsmen discussed in this chapter, most installers work for manufac turers of central office equipment rather than for the telephone companies. A few installers work directly for telephone operating companies, in cluding about 1,500 in the New England area, and some are employees of private contractors who specialize in large-scale telephone installation jobs. Central office equipment installers are generally assigned to specific areas which may include several States; they must travel to central offices of local telephone companies within these areas. On a small job, such as installing a switchboard in a central office in a small community, an installer may be teamed with only one or two other installers. On a large job, such as installing a long-distance toll center in a big city, he may work with hundreds of other installers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Young men who wish to become installers must have a high school or vocational school education. Men with some college education, especially those with engineering training, are often hired for these jobs. Preemployment tests are generally given to determine the applicant’s mechanical aptitudes, and a physical examination is required. Applicants must be willing to travel. New employees receive on-the-job training and classroom instruction. They attend classes for the first few weeks to learn basic installation methods and then start on-the-job training under experienced installers. After several years of experience, they may qualify as skilled installers. Central office installer uses wire-wrapping tool to wire a panel. Training on the job, however, continues even after they become skilled workers. Additional courses are given from time to time not only to improve their skills but also to teach them new techniques of installing telephone equipment. Installers may advance to engineering assistant jobs, especially those workers who have had some technical training beyond the high school level. Employment Outlook During the 1965-75 decade, several hundred job openings a year are expected to become avail able for young men to replace central office equip ment installers who transfer to other work, retire, or die. The total number of installers, however, will remain at about present levels for several reasons. Installation of automatic dialing equip ment for long-distance calls will continue at about the current rate; eventually such equipment will be installed in all parts of the country. Some new central offices will have to be constructed during the years ahead and existing ones modified or enlarged to meet the growing needs of a popu lation that is expanding and shifting to the suburbs. The amount of such work may be some what less than in recent years, however, because many new central offices have been built recently 787 TELEPHONE INDUSTRY and will not need replacement for some time. On the other hand, increasingly complex central office and toll equipment, including advanced types of PBX systems, as well as data and com puter networks will require manpower with more and higher skills in electronic work. Installers, perhaps more than other craftsmen connected with the telephone industry, are sub ject to possible employment fluctuations in the short run because of changes in business con ditions. When the business outlook is depressed, there is less likelihood that new central offices will be built or existing ones enlarged or mod ernized. When business is prospering, installa tions, additions, and modifications of central offices may occur at an above-average pace. Earnings and Working Conditions As of September 1964, the average hourly rate of pay for installers was $3.15. According to a major union contract in effect for this occupation in late 1964, inexperienced installers start at $1.81 to $1.90 an hour, depending on locality. The contract provides for periodic increases and employees may reach rates of $3.37 to $3.49 an hour after 6 years of experience. Employees may also receive merit increases above these rates, based on job performance plus length of service, bringing the top rates up to $3.60 to $3.78 an hour. Time and a half is paid for work in ex cess of 8 hours a day or 40 hours a week, and double time is paid for work on Sundays and holidays. Travel and expense allowances are also given. Installers receive 7 to 11 paid holidays a year, depending on locality. Vacations are pro vided according to length of service. Workers with 1 year of service receive 1 week’s vacation; 2 to 10 years of service, 2 weeks; 10 to 25 years of service, 3 weeks; and 25 years and over, 4 weeks. The majority of central office equipment in stallers, including most of those servicing the Bell System, are represented by the Communica tions Workers of America. Some installers em ployed by manufacturers supplying the non-Bell or independent segment of the telephone industry, and some employed by large installation contrac tors, are represented by the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Installers employed directly by telephone operating com panies in the New England area are members of the International Brotherhood of Telephone Workers, which is affiliated with the Alliance of Independent Telephone Unions. Linemen and Cable Splicers Nature of Work The vast network of wires and cables that con nects telephone central offices to the millions of telephones and switchboards in customers’ homes and buildings is constructed and kept in good op erating order by linemen and cable splicers and their helpers. Telephone companies employed over 35,000 such workers in early 1965—14,000 linemen, It,000 cable splicers, and 4,000 helpers, laborers, and other workers. In constructing new telephone lines, linemen (I).O.T. 822.381) place wires and cables leading from the central office to customers’ premises. They dig holes with power-driven equipment and set in telephone poles which support cables. Linemen climb the poles to attach the cables, usually leaving the ends free for cable splicers to connect later. In cities where telephone lines are below the streets, linemen place cables in underground conduits. Construction linemen usually work in crews of two to five men. A fore man directs the work of several of these crews. Much of the lineman’s work is in repairing and maintaining existing lines. When wires or cables break or when a pole is knocked down, linemen are sent immediately to make emergency repairs. The line crew foreman keeps in close contact with the testboardman who directs him to trouble locations on the lines. Some linemen are assigned sections of lines in rural areas which they inspect periodically. During the course of their work, they make minor repairs and line changes. After linemen place cables on poles or in underground conduits, cable splicers (D.O.T. 829.381) generally complete the line connections. Splicers work on aerial platforms, in manholes, or in basements of large commercial buildings. They connect individual wires within the cable by matching colors of wires so as to keep each OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 788 Lineman inspects cables from aerial lift. circuit continuous. Cable splicers also rearrange pairs of wires within a cable when lines have to be changed. At each splice, they either wrap insula tion around the wires and seal the joint with a lead sleeve or cover the splice with some other type of closure. Sometimes they fill the sheath ing with gas under pressure to keep out moisture. Cable splicers also maintain and repair cables. The preventive maintenance work that they do is extremely important because a single defect in a cable may result in a serious interruption in service. Many trouble spots are located through electric and gas pressure tests. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Telephone companies hire inexperienced men to train for jobs as linemen or cable splicers. Applicants for these jobs must have a high school or vocational school education and must pass a physical examination. Knowledge of the basic principles of electricity, and especially elec tronics, is helpful. Preemployment tests are often given to help determine the applicant’s aptitudes. Some line and cable work is strenuous, requiring workers to climb poles and lift lines and equip ment. Applicants for these positions must be physically qualified for such work. Manual dex terity and the ability to distinguish color are also important qualifications. Men who have received telephone training and experience in the armed services frequently are given preference for job openings and may be brought in above the entry level. For these jobs, telephone companies have train ing programs which include classroom instruc tion as well as on-the-job training. Classrooms are equipped with actual telephone apparatus, such as poles, cable supporting clamps, and other fixtures to simulate working conditions as closely as possible. Trainees learn to climb poles and are taught safe working practices to avoid power wires and falls. After a short period of classroom training, some trainees are assigned to a line crew to work on the job with experienced men under the supervision of a line foreman. I t usually takes about 6 years for linemen to reach the top pay for the job. Other trainees acquire the skills of the trade by working with experienced cable splicers to whom they are assigned. Line construction craftsmen continue to receive training throughout their careers to qualify for more difficult assignments and to keep up with technological changes in the industry. Those with the necessary qualifications find many addi tional advancement opportunities in the tele phone industry. For example, a lineman may be transferred to the job of telephone installer and later to that of telephone repairman or other higher rated jobs. Employment Outlook Employment of linemen and cable splicers is expected to continue to decline, despite anticipa tion of a continuing high level of activity in line and cable installation, maintenance, and repair. However, hundreds of job openings for these craftsmen as a group are expected to become available during the 1965-75 decade because of the need to replace workers who transfer to other jobs, retire, or die. 789 TELEPHONE INDUSTRY Employment trends will differ among in dividual occupations. Little or no growth is ex pected in the number of cable splicers because of technological developments that increase work er efficiency, such as devices that permit splicing of cables without the need to remove insulation; instruments for identifying types of wires in cables; and use of gas-filled cables whose failure can be pinpointed by detecting devices located in the central office. These developments, further more, are expected to reduce drastically the need for cable splicers’ helpers, continuing the rapid decline in employment in this occupation in re cent years. The number of linemen is expected to continue to decrease because the introduction of mechanical improvements, such as trucks with derricks and pole-lifting equipment, earth-boring tools, lightweight ladders, and “sky buckets,” has eliminated much of the physical work of line crews, and is causing a substantial reduction in the regular size of a line crew. Earnings and Working Conditions Cable splicers have higher earnings than line men. In December 1964, in the United States as a whole, cable splicer’s basic rates averaged $3.34 an hour, and linemen’s rates averaged $2.67. Average hourly rates ranged from $3.05 to $3.58 for cable splicers and from $2.13 to $3.14 for line men, with variations in earnings depending on locality. Pay rates within the jobs also depend to a considerable extent upon length of service. For example, according to a 1965 union-management agreement, new workers in line construction jobs in one of the higher pay scale cities begin at $72.50 for a 40-hour week. Linemen can reach the maximum of $147.50 after 6 years of service. The maximum basic weekly rate for cable splicers is $154.50 based upon a combined total of at least 6 years’ work as a helper and as a splicer. Linemen and cable splicers are covered by the same contract provisions governing overtime pay, vacations, holidays, length of service and other benefits that apply to telephone workers general ly. (See discussion earlier in this chapter.) Linemen and cable splicers work outdoors. They must do a considerable amount of climbing. They also work in manholes, often in stooped and cramped positions. Safety standards, developed over the years by telephone companies Avith the cooperation of labor unions, have greatly reduced the hazards of these occupations. When severe weather conditions damage telephone lines, line men and cable splicers may be called upon to work long and irregular hours to repair damaged equipment and to restore service. Because of the nature of their work, some linemen and cable splicers, by the time they reach their midfifties, transfer to other jobs, such as those of installers and repairmen or central office craftsmen. Telephone and PBX Installers and Repairmen Nature of Work Telephone and private branch exchange (PBX) installers and repairmen (sometimes called servicemen) install and service telephone and PBX systems on the customers' property and make necessary repairs on the equipment when trouble develops. These workers travel to customers' homes and offices in trucks equipped with telephone tools and supplies. When tele phone customers move or request new types of service, installers relocate telephones or make changes on customers’ existing equipment. For example, they may install a PBX system in an office or change a two-party line to a single party line in a residence. Installers may also fill a customer's request to add an extension in another room or to replace an old telephone with a newer model. Telephone and PBX installers and repairmen are the largest group of telephone craftsmen; about 76,000 were employed in early 1965. More than two-thirds of these men mainly install tele phones or private branch exchanges and about 16,000 of them repair and maintain this equip ment. The jobs of installing and repairing tele phones and PBX systems are discussed below as separate jobs, but many telephone companies com bine two or more of these jobs. Telephone installers (D.O.T. 822.381) install and remove telephones in homes and places of business. They connect newly installed telephones to outside service wires which are on nearby 790 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Installer mounts connecting block for telephone. buildings or poles. Installers often must climb poles to make these connections. Telephone installers are sometimes called station installers. P B X installers (D.O.T. 822.381) perform the same duties as telephone installers but they specialize in more complex switchboard instal lations. They connect wires from terminals to switchboards and make tests to check their instal lations. Some PBX installers also set up equip ment for radio and television broadcasts, mobile radiotelephones, and teletypewriters. Telephone repairmen (D.O.T. 822.281), with the assistance of testboardmen in the central office, locate trouble on customers’ telephones and make repairs to restore service. Sometimes the jobs of telephone repairmen and telephone installers are combined and the workers are called telephone installer-repairmen. P B X repairmen (D.O.T. 822.281), with the assistance of testboardmen, locate trouble on cus tomers’ PBX systems and make necessary repairs. They also maintain associated equipment, such as batteries, relays, and power plants. Some PBX repairmen maintain and repair equipment for radio and television broadcasts, mobile radio telephones, and teletypewriters. Sometimes the jobs of PBX installers and PBX repairmen are combined into the job of P B X installer-repairmen. Telephone companies hire inexperienced men and train them for telephone and PB X installa tion and repair jobs. Since much of the work requires personal contact with customers, appli cants who have a pleasing appearance and the ability to deal effectively with people are pre ferred. Applicants for these skilled jobs must have a high school or vocational school educa tion. To help determine applicants’ aptitudes, preemployment tests are usually given. New workers are given classroom instruction in addition to on-the-job training. Classrooms are equipped with telephone poles, lines and cables, and terminal boxes, as well as models of typical residential construction to simulate actual working conditions. Trainees practice installing telephones and making connections to service wires just as they would in the field. After a few weeks of such training, new workers accom pany skilled installers and continue to learn the job of installing by watching and helping these experienced men. Telephone and PBX installers and repairmen continue to receive training throughout their careers with the telephone company to qualify for more difficult and responsible work. Since technological changes in the telephone industry are occurring constantly, telephone companies send their craftsmen to training schools for fur ther instruction. Well qualified workers will have many additional advancement opportuni ties in this industry. For example, after a tele phone installer has worked a few years, he may be transferred to the higher paying job of PBX installer. Similarly, a telephone repairman may be promoted to PBX repairman, one of the high est paying craft jobs. Another new worker may start as a lineman and then transfer to the job of installing or repairing telephones, later mov ing to either PBX installer or PB X repairman. Employment Outlook Young men will find many opportunities for steady employment as telephone and PB X in stallers and repairmen during the 1965-75 decade. Primarily, these opportunities will result from the need to replace workers who tranfer to other tele phone jobs, leave the industry, retire, or die. Re 791 TELEPHONE INDUSTRY tirements and deaths alone may result in about 2,000 job openings each year during the next 10 years. More than the usual number of telephono craftsmen are expected to retire during the later 1960’s as those who were hired in the 1920’s, when the industry’s employment expanded greatly, reach retirement age. Some job openings created by turnover may be filled by workers transferring from other telephone craft jobs, such as linemen and cable splicers, but many will be open to new employees. The total number of telephone and PBX in stallers and repairmen is expected to increase slightly during the next 10 years. Some additional jobs may become available because of a gradual changeover to electronic switching equipment in central offices that has recently begun. Also, some expansion is anticipated in the volume of service handled by these craftsmen, because of the ex panding number of telephones to be serviced and repaired; the growing popularity of extension phones; the increased use of specialized types of phone equipment; and the development of im proved but more complex equipment. The em ployment increase will be slight because recent technological changes have resulted in increases in the efficiency of individual installers or re pairmen. Examples of such changes include im proved designs for telephone instruments, wires, and cables; the development of removeable com ponents which can be returned to factory or serv ice shop for repair; and the combining of in stallation and repair work into a single job. Earnings and Working Conditions In December 1964, the average basic hourly rate for PBX repairmen was $8.42 an hour, and the rate for telephone and PBX installers was $8.27. Average hourly rates ranged from $8.21 to $8.52 for PBX repairmen and from $2.99 to $8.45 for telephone and PBX installers, with variations in earnings depending on locality and length of service. The effect of length of service on wage rates is illustrated by a 1965 union-management agree ment in one of the higher pay scale cities. Under this agreement, telephone installers and repair men have a starting rate of $73.50 for a 40-hour week with periodic pay increases until a maximum of $151.50 a week is reached after about 6 years. PBX installers and repairmen also have a start ing rate of $73.50 and progress to $154.50. In stallers and repairmen are covered by the same provisions governing overtime pay, vacations, holidays, and other benefits that apply to tele phone workers generally. (See discussion earlier in this chapter.) Telephone and PBX installers and repairmen work indoors and outdoors in all kinds of weather. Outdoor work includes climbing poles to place and repair telephone wires leading from poles to customers’ premises. Installers and repairmen may be called upon to work extra hours when breakdowns in customers’ lines or equipment occur. Occupations in Agriculture As a way of life, farming offers advantages that are attractive to many families. Some people like the greater independence and freedom associ ated with various phases of farm work and also the variety of jobs associated with farming. They like living on farms or in small communities and are willing to accept lower incomes than they would consider satisfactory in an urban environ ment. With modern transportation and communi cation, many of the differences that once existed between rural and urban living are vanishing. Many farmers consider the country a better place to rear children. Some remain on farms because they are either unsuited or unadapted to other kinds of work. Despite increasing specialization and mechani zation in agriculture, the farmer still functions in many different capacities and makes many inde pendent decisions. The typical farmer is man ager, supervisor, and laborer; in some respects, he acts also as bookkeeper and financier. He also has to know insects, bacteria, fungi, and viruses, as well as a wide variety of crops and animals. He buys many items from various types of deal ers. He is a producer with many competitors, and sells his products in many kinds of markets. (Migrant farm workers, whose earnings and liv ing conditions differ greatly from those of the farm operator and the year-round farm worker, are not discussed in this chapter.) 792 Significance of Agriculture in the Economy The Nation’s agricultural economy, its methods of farming, and the resources required to finance a farm business have changed greatly during the past century—and especially during the past 25 years. The national economy is no longer predomi nantly agricultural. Only about 7 percent of the total population now* live on farms, compared with 65 percent in 1860. Less than 6 percent of total civilian labor force is employed on farms. Whereas one farm worker was able to produce enough food and fiber for himself and only 4 other people a hundred years ago, today he can produce enough for himself and 31 others. Although the number of farm workers has declined, there has been a sharp increase in the number who wmrk in jobs closely related to agriculture. These include the workers in feed mills, fertilizer plants, farm machinery industries, farm supply stores, food processing plants, and many other businesses that process, distribute, or transport farm products and farm supplies. The total number of trained persons needed to carry on this whole complex of activities on and off the farm—often called “Agri-Business”—is con stantly rising. OPPORTUNITIES ON FARMS The typical farm of today is much larger and more highly mechanized than the farm of 25 years ago, and consequently requires much more capital and many farming skills to own and operate. The standard of living of American farmers today is higher than ever before. Oppor tunities for the small farmer and for the tenant farmer, however, have become very limited. Investment Per Worker on Farms Since before World War II, American agri culture has experienced a spectacular increase in the value of productive assets relative to the number of workers. This increase has resulted chiefly from the higher cost of land and equip ment and the substitution of machinery for labor. Capital investment in land, farm buildings, livestock, machinery, equipment, and other items amounted to about $27,000 per farm worker in 1964, compared with less than $3,500 in 1940; the investment in farm machinery and equipment alone has increased ten-fold. Technological pro gress has brought to the farmer many new laborsaving devices and production-expanding aids; it has also increased the skills required for many farm jobs and has raised the amount of capital needed to operate a farm profitably. Size of Farm Operations Farms in the United States are classified by the Bureau of the Census according to the value of their annual sales. They vary greatly in size of operation. In 1959, about 65 percent of all farms were classified as commercial (those pro viding the farmer with his major source of income), but fewer than 40 percent of all farms reported sales of $5,000 or more. These data indi cate that many farms are too small to provide more than part of the income needed to support a satisfactory standard of living. However, the trend is toward fewer and larger farms, and for farm operators, this means that more managerial skills, more capital, and more mechanical equip ment are needed. Farm Employment Outlook The employment situation for farm workers is becoming less favorable because mechanization is rapidly displacing labor and because the num ber of people available for such employment is greater than the number of available farm jobs. As the size of farms increases and a further mechanization takes place, the number of desir able openings for new workers will be fewer than the number of workers who retire, die, or leave the farm for other reasons. Probably the number of farm operators and other farm work ers will continue to decline. By 1975, the number of persons employed on the farm may be a fifth less than the 4.8 million employed in 1964. Between 1964 and 1970, an estimated 155,000 operators of medium-size to large farms (those selling at least $5,000 worth of farm products annually) are expected to leave the occupation because of retirement or death. Consequently, only a small proportion of farm youths will have the opportunity to become operators of such farms. Other young men who have not grown up on farms and acquired a farmer’s skills will have even less chance of becoming farm operators. Agriculture cannot expect the same kind of general increase in per capita consumption of its products as can many other segments of the economy. Expansion of domestic markets will depend mainly on population growth. Although exports of farm products are expected to continue at relatively high levels, farming will neverthe less continue to be highly competitive because of the rapid advances in technology, faster com munication and transportation, and better m793 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 794 formed producers and consumers. For the next decade or so, no great need for increased farm output is anticipated and, as a result, prices of many important farm products may not be attrac tive to farm operators. Despite concerted efforts to improve the farmers’ economic position in re cent years, real incomes of farmers have tended to decline relative to those of industrial workers. Agriculture will nevertheless remain one of the large areas of employment in the economy. Moreover, if farmers’ needs for machinery, equip ment, and supplies and consumers’ requirements for processed and packaged farm products are to be met, job openings in fields closely related to agriculture will expand. In 1964, when 4.8 million persons (operators, unpaid family work ers, and hired workers) worked on farms, about an equal number were engaged in closely related activities. Some were producing farm supplies such as fertilizer, processed feed, and machinery. Others were engaged in transporting, storing, processing, packaging, or otherwise fabricating or handling farm products along the route from the farmer to the consumer. Still others were serv icing farmers. Increased employment in these areas will provide opportunities for some workers who are unable to obtain farm jobs because of declining employment, or who prefer employment closely associated with farming. Opportunities for Hired Workers on Farms Most of the workers on farms are either selfemployed operators or members of farm families. The number of hired workers (including family members who are paid wages) fluctuates season ally from 800,000 in January to 2.1 million at the peak of the harvest in September. Roughly 700,000 hired workers were employed on farms for at least 150 working days in 1963. Others, including many students and housewives, work chiefly during the harvest season. Although farm wage rates in 1964 were more than four times as high as in 1940, they were still low in relation to earnings of factory work ers. Ordinary farm work is excluded from the coverage of the Fair Labor Standards Act. Average farm wage rates for full-time workers in the United States, as of October 1, 1964, were: Per Per Per Per month with house____________________ month with board and room--------------week with board and room___________ week without board or room--------------- $206. 161. 38. 47. 00 00 00 25 Employment opportunities for hired farm workers vary from season to season and from one part of the country to another. Specific informa tion concerning the kinds of jobs available and current wage rates may be obtained from the local offices of the State employment services. Training Opportunities A vailable for Farming The best initial training for farming is to grow up on a farm. The necessary experience may also be gained by working as a closely supervised tenant or hired worker on a success ful farm. Several types of vocational training are avail able under the federally assisted program of voca tional education, which, among other things, pro vides for the teaching of agriculture in high schools. The training may be given in : 1. All-day programs supervised by teachers who are agricultural college graduates. 2. Young farmer programs consisting of short courses during the day, with intensive training in farm planning, farm layout, farm structures, construction, welding and related shop and repair work, plant breeding, pest con trol, growing broilers and breeding cattle, swine, sheep, and other aspects of farming. 3. Adult farmer programs in evening classes (or day classes in off-seasons) giving intensive training in con servation, crop and livestock production, and special problems such as control of pests, and planning adjust ments in land use and treatment. The most significant general sources of infor mation and guidance available to farmers are the services provided by the land-grant colleges and universities and the U.S. Department of Agri culture. These include the facilities of State and Federal experiment stations, the Extension Services, and resident teaching. The county agricultural agent is often the best contact for the young person seeking advice and assistance in farming. The Farmers Home Administra tion system of supervised credit is one example of credit facilities combined with a form of extension teaching. Organized groups such as the Future Farmers of America and the 4-H (dubs also furnish valuable training to young farm people. OPPORTUNITIES ON SPECIFIC TYPES OF FARMS Although the overall number of openings in farming is decreasing, a considerable number of desirable and rewarding openings nevertheless occur from time to time. Thus, each year, many young people must decide whether to go into farming. For some, the decision to enter farm ing may be made simply because an opening exists on the family farm or on one nearby. If the decision is to be sound, however, it should be based on a careful appraisal of the particular require ments in specific types of farm operations, and the prospects for success in them. Each person must make this appraisal in the light of his apti tudes, interests, preferences, experience, knowl edge, and skills in directing labor and handling livestock and machinery. His choice must take into account also his family labor supply and his financial resources, as the labor and capital re quirements for an operation of adequate size vary widely from one type of farm to another. A realistic decision to go into farming can be made only in terms of a particular type (or types) of farming in a particular area or community. This section evaluates some of the more common farm types, from an occupational standpoint. The accompanying table gives illustrative data on size of farm, labor and capital requirements, and net farm incomes received by operators of typical or representative farms in various parts of the country. On most of the farms, the major part of the work is done by the farm operator with help from his family. Whereas, some of the smaller farms hire help only during peak labor season, large ones often use hired labor the year-round. The figures in the table on capital invested do not mean that the operator must have that amount of money to get started. They do mean that, on these farms, the operator controls or uses resources valued at that amount. Many farmers supplement their own capital with bor rowed funds; others rent part or all of the land they use, thus allowing more of their own funds for the purchase of livestock, machinery, and equipment. Still others have partners who pro vide most of the working capital. For example, many farmers raise broilers in partnership with a feed dealer. It may be well to mention here the question of specialization versus diversification in farm operations. No brief general statement can be made that would apply in all parts of the coun try, but the general trend is in the direction of more specialized farming. Farms that produced many products a generation ago may now pro duce only two or three; efficient production of most farm products requires substantial invest ment in specialized equipment, and, if the farm operator is to receive the full benefit from his investment, he must produce on a large scale. Two other factors contributing to specialization are the greater emphasis on quality of farm products and the increased knowledge and skill required for effective production of each. Rela tively few farmers, however, find it to their advantage to produce only one product. The main reasons for this are the spreading of price and production risks and the more effective use of labor, particularly family labor, and other resources that might be virtually wasted or in effectively used in a one-product system. Dairy Farms Dairy farms are found in most parts of the country. Despite modern methods of processing and transporting milk, dairy production is still concentrated near the large population centers. A large part of the total national production of dairy products is concentrated in the North eastern and the Great Lakes States. However, many areas in the Far West and the South are also becoming large producers of dairy products. 795 796 S iz e OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK of F arm , L abo r U se d , C a p it a l I n v e st e d L , a n d N , o c a t io n e t F arm 1962-64 I ncom e A verage on C o m m e r c ia l F a r m s , T by y pe , S iz e , a n d C a p ita l in v e s te d in — T y p e o f farm a n d lo c a tio n T o ta l la b o r u se d (h o u r s) S iz e o f fa rm in 1964 a s m e a s u red b y — T o ta l farm c a p ita l Land and b u ild in g s M a c h in e r y a n d e q u ip m en t L iv e s to c k C rop s N et farm in c o m e D a ir y farm s: 33.0 m ilk c o w s . . . 4 ,6 0 0 $23, 630 $7,940 $ 9 ,3 0 0 $3. 030 $ 4 3,900 $3,924 33.3 m ilk c o w s _____ . . 22.1 m ilk c o w s ___. . . _ _ 24.8 m ilk c o w s . _ ___________ 4 .6 5 0 3 ,8 2 0 4 .3 2 0 4, 210 5, 030 3 9 ,370 29.110 21,630 3 7 ,150 3 5 ,11C 12,310 6 ,4 1 0 4 ,2 6 0 7 ,4 0 0 2, 260 11,780 6 ,3 1 0 7, 520 7, 080 7 ,3 7 0 5 ,3 0 0 4 ,0 0 0 4 ,0 1 0 3 ,9 2 0 0 6 8 ,7 6 0 4 5 ,8 3 0 3 7 ,4 2 0 55, 550 44, 740 6,388 3 ,2 8 8 4 ,1 0 7 4,371 2 ,3 3 2 2 ,3 1 0 23, 030 8 ,6 1 0 0 0 3 1 ,6 4 0 3 ,6 0 2 1,760 2,6 0 0 1,5 7 0 15,520 3 8 .0 9 0 11,450 2, 540 9, 700 4 ,1 0 0 0 0 730 0 1 8 ,060 47, 790 16,450 2,298 0 170 4, 580 3, 700 3 ,9 1 0 3 ,1 8 0 49, 250 4 0 ,8 7 0 8 2 ,7 7 0 117, 080 8 ,0 9 0 6 .4 1 0 10,090 8 ,1 4 0 8 ,4 7 0 7 ,3 9 0 16,140 2 ,4 0 0 5, 050 4 ,0 1 0 11,170 1,7 9 0 7 0 ,8 6 0 58, 680 120,170 129,410 7,311 4, 086 9 ,5 9 0 11,215 4 ,9 3 0 2 7 ,000 2,1 5 0 1,0 5 0 510 30, 710 2,9 0 3 2 ,9 2 0 26,310 11, 780 210, 000 3, 260 3 7 ,0 1 0 510 8 ,1 4 0 180 1,8 9 0 15, 730 257, 040 2,3 9 2 35,484 2,9 4 0 3, 740 5, 690 47, 980 7 4 ,820 122,430 6, 530 10,120 16, 930 2 ,2 2 0 760 820 560 320 430 57, 290 86, 020 140,610 4 ,6 0 4 6 ,6 4 0 15,891 12, 530 9 ,7 6 0 29,470 3 ,6 4 0 255,050 255,420 919. 250 17,370 2 6 ,100 27,180 7 2 ,950 3 ,3 1 0 0 0 0 1 ,8 2 0 0 0 0 690 i 3 0 4 ,5 9 0 2 302, 230 3 1, 039, 600 2 3 ,1 9 0 37,428 3 2 ,0 4 8 96,204 4,9 1 7 5, 990 6 ,8 0 0 35, 280 3 8 ,5 0 0 4 ,4 1 0 4 ,6 8 0 490 490 520 450 4 0 ,7 0 0 4 4 ,1 2 0 6 ,2 9 0 6,394 62 a cres o f c r o p la n d . 25 a cres o f c r o p la n d 42 acres o f c r o p la n d . 4 ,7 5 0 3, 520 4 ,9 1 0 9 2 ,160 16, 920 33, 250 5 ,4 0 0 3 ,0 0 0 5 ,8 6 0 7 ,5 7 0 2 ,7 6 0 4 ,7 9 0 2 ,0 4 0 890 1,5 9 0 107,170 23, 570 4 5 ,4 9 0 8.051 2,978 5 ,6 8 0 597 acres o f c r o p la n d __________ 397 acres o f c r o p la n d . . . . 2,5 8 0 3 ,5 4 0 2 ,6 7 0 4 0 ,3 9 0 3 9 ,8 0 0 4 6 ,1 5 0 10,990 8, 360 7 ,9 5 0 4 ,1 9 0 9, 260 3 ,8 9 0 1 ,7 4 0 2 ,5 3 0 1,3 9 0 5 7 ,310 59, 950 5 9 ,380 9,476 6,154 9 ,3 0 2 2,8 9 0 E a s te r n W isc o n sin : 5,100 la y e r s _________ . _ . B r o ile r farm s: D e lm a r v a : B ro iler s B r o ile r -c r o p ______ _ _ __ _ G e orgia ____ _ __ _ . . . . . . . C o rn B e lt farm s: I lo g fa tte n in g — b eef r a isin g C o t t o n farm s: S o u th e r n P ie d m o n t . M is s is s ip p i D e lta : _ . .. . . . 104 a cres o f c r o p la n d . 640 acres o f c r o p la n d T exas: B la c k P r a ir ie . . ..... ... .. . 240 acres o f c r o p la n d _______ . H ig h P la in s (ir r ig a te d ). __________ __ S a n J o a q u in V a lle y , C a lif, (ir r ig a te d ): C o tto n -g e n e r a l crop ( m e d iu m -s iz e )____ C o tto n -g e n e r a l crop (large) P e a n u t-c o tto n farm s, S o u th e r n C o a sta l P la in s . T o b a c c o farm s: N o r t h C a ro lin a C o a s ta l P la in : T obacco. . . . . T o b a c c o -c o tto n . . . . . . . . . K e n t u c k y B lu egr ass: T o b a c c o -liv e s to c k , in n e r a r e a . _______ T o b a c c o -d a ir y , in te r m e d ia te a r e a ____ T o b a c c o -d a ir y , o u te r a r e a ____ S p r in g w h e a t farm s: N o r th e r n P la in s: W h e a t-s m a ll g r a in -liv e s to c k ____ . W h e a t-c o r n -liv e s to c k _______ _ W h e a t-fa llo w . W in te r w h e a t farm s: S o u th e r n P la in s: W h e a t ____________ W h ea t-g ra in s o r g h u m . .... . . . P a c ific N o r th w e st: W h e a t-p e a . W h e a t-fa llo w ____ ___________ _ . . . C a ttle ran ch es: N o r th e r n P la in s __________ 335 a cres o f c r o p la n d . ________ 71 a cres o f c r o p la n d ___________ 3 ,0 0 0 87, 780 104, 060 11,070 10,880 7 ,7 4 0 9 ,2 4 0 2 ,5 4 0 1,7 4 0 109,130 125,920 10,140 8,371 3 ,5 4 0 174,800 1,066 a cres o f c r o p la n d . . 3, 700 131,630 23, 270 19,900 2,4 6 0 4 ,8 1 0 1,3 7 0 1.3 7 0 201, 900 157,710 17.353 15,328 14,010 5 ,1 3 0 5 2 ,480 7, 750 24, 240 39, 740 4 1 ,8 5 0 3 ,7 6 0 138,480 6. 510 5, 270 3, 240 4 ,5 0 0 1,8 3 0 8 7 ,7 1 0 9 2 ,6 0 0 177,370 6 ,8 9 3 9,6 4 3 4 ,7 2 7 7 ,1 0 0 7 ,7 9 0 5 ,3 9 0 68, 580 101,520 189,700 1,2 5 0 1,7 7 0 780 100, 200 11,710 14,310 5,6 8 0 . ._ 104.6 c o w s . . . . N o r th e r n P la in s __________ U ta h -N e v a d a . . . _ _ S o u t h w e s t ______ . . . . _______ ________ __ 1 I n c lu d e s $23,440 c o s t o f ir rig a tio n s y s te m . 2 I n c lu d e s $19,630 c o s t o f ir r ig a tio n s y s te m . 3 I n c lu d e s $47,400 c o st o f ir r ig a tio n s y s t e m . 786 616 acres o f c r o p l a n d ___ 693 acres o f c r o p la n d . .... I n te r m o u n ta in R e g io n ... S o u t h w e s t ... S h e e p ran ch es: 5, 985 1,392 s h e e p . . _ . . . . . . 2,217 s h e e p _____________________ 1,219 s h e e p ____ ________________ 31, 790 6 .7 7 0 23, 600 6 ,6 9 0 4 ,9 0 0 4 5 ,2 3 0 21,840 155, 210 217,220 N ote : P r e p a r e d in t h e F a r m P r o d u c tio n E c o n o m ic s R e se a r c h D iv is io n , E c o n o m ic R e se a r c h S e r v ic e , U .S . D e p a r t m e n t o f A g r ic u ltu r e . 797 OCCUPATIONS IN AGRICULTURE While many of these are “drylot” operations, on dairy farms in the Lake States and to a lesser extent in the Northeast, crops are important. This causes peak labor loads, especially at harvesttime. However, there is plenty of work through out the year on dairy farms, so that effective use can be made of labor and a regular force can be kept fully occupied most of the time. Although most people do not like to be “tied down” 7 days a week, this presents no great hardship for the man who likes livestock and enjoys working with animals. Dairying is also a good choice for the man who likes to work with mechanical equipment. As many dairy farmers still produce much of their feed, the work varies enough to keep it from becoming monotonous. The dairyman’s sales, and therefore his income, are fairly evenly distributed throughout the year. Moreover, the prices he receives are usually less subject to the marked year-to-year fluctuations which affect some other types of farming. The accompanying table shows the average net farm income in the 1962-64 period on dairy farms in the Central Northeast and Midwest. Compared with farmers in most other areas, dairy farmers in the more concentrated milksheds of the Northeast (such as the dairy farms in the Central Northeast shown in the table) frequently milk larger herds, buy a larger proportion of their feed, and are more likely to buy rather than raise their herd replacements. Exceptions are the specialized dairy farms on the Pacific Coast and in a few other isolated areas. Perhaps the most highly specialized producing area is the drylot dairy area near Los Angeles. In this area, dairy farms are quite small in acreage but large in milk production and number of cows milked. No crops are produced; these dairy operators buy their entire feed requirements from outside the area. Most of the cows are bought at freshening time and are replaced when their lactation period is completed. These highly specialized operations are virtual “milk factories.” Net farm income represents the return to the farm operator for his own and his family’s labor, and for the capital invested in the farm business— provided he owns his land and is free from debt. If he rents part or all of his farm, not all of net farm income is available for family living; part of it must be used for rent. Similarly, the farmer who is in debt must use part of this net farm income for interest and principal payments. Lenders usually consider a 2 to 1 ratio of assets to liabilities a safe one. For example, a $20,000 mortgage would be reasonable for the eastern Wisconsin grade “A” dairy farm, shown in the accompanying table, with land and buildings worth about $40,000. If $20,000 were borrowed at 5 percent and payments were set up on a standard 20-year amortization plan, the annual payments would be $1,500. Consequently, the farmer with this repayment schedule has $1,500 less for family living than one who is free from debt. This same general qualification applies to the incomes shown for other types of farms. Livestock Farms and Ranches A general livestock farm is a good choice for the farmer whose interests and skills are in work associated with livestock and mechanical equip ment. General livestock farms—such as the hogfattening and beef raising farms and hog-beef fattening farms of the Corn Belt—require con siderably less daily “chore work” than dairy farms. (See table.) Many farmers consider this an advantage. Although livestock producers often work shorter hours than dairymen, they cannot always make as effective use of the regular labor force during slack seasons. This may not present great problems when a substantial part of the labor force is made up of young people of school age, because the busiest times come mainly when these workers are out of school. The livestock farmer’s income is not as well distributed throughout the year as the dairy man’s, and it is less likely to be uniform from year to year. To some extent, this complicates financial management problems and increases the risks of operation. Moreover, on farms of rather limited acreages—often found in the Eastern States—the level of income from general livestock is usually lower than from a dairy herd on similar acreage. Most hog producers have their own breeding stock and raise the pigs they fatten for market. With cattle and sheep, however, the situation differs. Most of the cattle and sheep fattened and marketed by the livestock farmer are bred and raised originally by someone else—usually the 798 livestock rancher of the West. The accompanying table includes data for six types of Western live stock operations: Northern Plains sheep and cattle ranches, Intermountain cattle ranches, sheep ranches in Utah and Nevada, and sheep and cattle ranches in the Southwest. In these areas of low rainfall, the main source of feed is range grass, and several acres are required to support one animal. Except where irrigation water is available, few feed crops are harvested. Some ranchers, particularly those in the Inter mountain region and the Northern Plains, own only a relatively small part of the land on which they graze their livestock. The bulk of it is public land on which they buy grazing rights. Large acreages are required to provide enough pasture for their stock, so the ranchers spend much time in the saddle, truck, or jeep, managing their herds. Poultry Farms Most farmers in the United States keep some poultry, but in 1959 fewer than 4.3 percent of them were classified as poultry farmers. Many poultry farms concentrate on egg production; most of the larger and more specialized of these are in the Northeastern States and in California. Others produce broilers; many highly concen trated centers of broiler production are east of the Mississippi River and a few are on the West Coast. There are also specialized turkey pro ducers, and a concentration of specialized pro ducers of ducks in Suffolk County, Long Island, N.Y. Although a fe\y poultrymen produce some crops, these are usually produced for sale. Spe cial poultry feeds and laying mash are usually purchased. Crops are not grown by most special ized poultry producers, particularly those who produce broilers or large laying flocks. Opera tors of typical commercial poultry farms in New Jersey, for example, buy all their feed. The typical broiler producer in Maine, the Delmarva (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia) peninsula, and Georgia, devotes practically all of his capital and labor to the production of broilers. Poultry farming requires some specialized skill in handling birds, chiefly on the part of the oper ator. Little is required in the way of physical OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK strength, as the tasks are generally not arduous. This is particularly true now that bulk handling of feed and mechanical feeding are widespread. For these reasons, poultry farms can make good use of available family help. Data on average capital investment and net farm income over the 1962-64 period for repre sentative egg producers in New Jersey and broiler operators in Maine, Delmarva, and Georgia are given in the table. These averages do not reveal the sharp year-to-year fluctuations in income that these producers experience. Because they have a high proportion of cash costs and a rather thin margin of profit, relatively small changes in feed, broiler, and egg prices can produce sizable fluc tuations in net farm income. The incomes of most broiler producers, how ever, are somewhat steadier, perhaps because of the high proportion of broiler growers who pro duce “under contract.” Contract production is much more widespread in broiler production than in any other major type of farming. Under these arrangements, the financing agency (usually a feed dealer) furnishes the feed, chicks, and tech nical supervision—virtually everything except the buildings, equipment, and direct production labor. The grower gets a stipulated amount per bird marketed, and often a bonus for superior efficiency. Many turkey producers operate under similar contracts, but these arrangements are not nearly so universal for production of turkeys as for broilers. Corn and Wheat Farms For the man who likes working with crops and farm machinery, cash grain or corn or wheat farming has much to offer. Many farmers are reluctant to be tied down the year round with livestock and related farm chores and prefer instead to work long hours with laborsaving equipment during the busy seasons, and then have more freedom when the rush times are over. The investment required and the recent income experience on some representative cash grain farms are shown in the table. Farms of this type include cash grain farms in the Corn Belt, spring wheat farms in the Northern Plains, winter wheat farms in the Southern Plains, and wheat-pea and wheat-fallow farms in the 799 OCCUPATIONS IN AGRICULTURE Pacific Northwest. Some of these farmers—par ticularly in the Northern Plains—raise some beef cattle for sale as feeders and keep a few milk cows. However, this livestock production is usu ally of secondary importance. Many of these farmers do not raise any livestock. One of the main risks faced by the commercial wheat grower is the uncertainty of favorable weather. There is also some price risk because of the large surplus of wheat; however, Federal Government’s price-support program has sta bilized prices to some extent. Cotton, Tobacco, and Peanut Farms In terms of numbers of farmers, the produc tion of cotton, tobacco, and peanuts makes up a substantial part of the agriculture in the South eastern and South Central States. These products are grown on farms that range from very small operating units to comparatively large ones. Competition among these growers has been keen, and many have been forced to diversify and enlarge their farms—adjustments which require expenditures of capital. Industrial expansion in the South and competition from cotton growers in the irrigated areas of the West and Southwest have forced many cotton farmers in the South east out of cotton growing. Some of them have stopped farming, and some have diversified their operations. Competition will continue in the growing of cotton, tobacco, and peanuts. Crop Specialty Farms Many farmers throughout the country have special background, skills, resources, and other advantages, chiefly because of location and home training. They may specialize in production of 7 78 -3 1 6 0<— 65- -52 a single crop—such as grapes, oranges, potatoes, sugarcane, or melons—or a combination of related specialty crops. Operators of these enterprises usually employ considerable seasonal labor and require relatively expensive specialized equipment. They also need specific skills, many of which can be obtained only through experience. Enterprises of this kind should be undertaken only by persons with considerable experience and some of the special skills and techniques required. An alert individ ual with reasonable aptitude can usually learn these skills by working a few years as a laborer for a good operator or as a tenant for a landlord who can give direction and assistance. Annual returns from these specialty farms usually vary greatly from year to year. Since production is often subject to considerable varia tion because of the vagaries of nature and the changes in prices, operators of these farms must keep abreast of production and marketing con ditions. In general, these operators are well rewarded for their ability to manage, produce, and market. Other Specialties Other highly specialized operations, such as fur farms, apiaries, and hop farms are very sensitive to price and market conditions. Special land, skills, know-how, and equipment are required, and risks are high. But even with the high risk, from the standpoint of capital in vested and income, the venture is often rewarding to individuals who have the requisite ability and resources. The operator of such a farm must be enterprising and alert, must keep abreast of production and markets, and must have the ambition and desire to accomplish his objective. OCCUPATIONS RELATED TO AGRICULTURE As agriculture becomes more technical and more commercial, the number of people directly engaged in farming decreases but the number in occupations related to agriculture increases rapidly. Power machinery, for example, saves many man-hours of labor on the farm, but many highly trained nonfarm workers are required to develop, distribute, and service these machines. A large number of the vocations that are emerging around agriculture are professional or technical and require college training or its equivalent. Others can sometimes be learned on the job. For many of these occupations related to agri culture, a farm background is helpful, but not essential. The following sections discuss in detail some of these occupations. Agriculture Extension Service Workers (2d ed. D.O.T. 0-12.20) (3d ed. D.O.T. 096.128) Nature of Work Agricultural extension workers are engaged in educational work in agriculture and home eco nomics. They are employed jointly by State land-grant colleges and the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Extension workers must be pro ficient in both subject matter and teaching methods. County agricultural agents are concerned pri marily with increasing the efficiency of agricul tural production and marketing, including the development of new market outlets. County home demonstration agents work closely with women in home management and nutrition. Agricultural extension workers help people to analyze and solve their farming and homemak ing problems. Much of this educational work is with groups, through meetings, tours, and dem onstrations. Individual assistance is given to farmers and homemakers on problems that can not be solved satisfactorily by group methods. Both the county agent and the home agent, along with the 4-H Club agent in counties that have one, work with rural youth in organized groups on projects related to agriculture, homemaking, and community improvement. Extension workers 800 rely heavily on the use of the mass communication media, such as newspapers, radio, and television. The work of the county extension staff is sup ported by State extension specialists in such subject-matter fields as agronomy, livestock, marketing, agricultural economics, home eco nomics, horticulture, and entomology. Each of these specialists keeps abreast of the latest re search findings in his particular field and works with agents in applying them to local needs and problems. Where Employed Extension agents are located in nearly every agricultural county in the United States. Coun ties with many farmers producing a variety of crops may have as many as 10 agents or more, each specializing in a particular field such as dairying, poultry production, crop production, or livestock. Training and Other Qualifications A county agent must have a bachelor’s degree in agriculture or home economics. In most States, the Extension Service maintains an in-service training program to keep agents informed of the 801 OCCUPATIONS IN AGRICULTURE newest findings in agricultural research and of new programs and policies that affect agriculture and new teaching techniques. To be successful, extension workers must like to work with people. In most instances, specialists on the State staff are expected to have the master’s degree and special training in their particular lines of work. Employment Outlook Employment of Extension Service workers has grown to a total of 15,000 in 1965. The de mand for additional workers is expected to con tinue. As agricultural technology becomes more complicated, and as farm people become more aware of the need for organized activity, more help is being sought from trained Extension Service personnel. A growing number of Exten sion Service workers will be needed, particularly in depressed rural areas. The work of the Ex tension Service will also be extended to new segments of the population, as rural nonfarm families and suburban residents recognize the value of assistance from extension workers. Counterparts of the Agricultural Extension Service are being established in many countries of the world and Extension Service personnel are often recruited to help initiate and organize these programs. Earnings and Working Conditions The salaries of extension agents vary from State to State and county to county. In 1965, the average annual starting salary of assistant agri cultural agents was about $6,000 and of home agents approximately $5,500. Starting salaries for assistant agricultural agents ranged from $5,000 to $7,000. Ordinarily, the competent assistant agent is promoted rapidly to a more responsible job, either in the county where he works or in another county in the State. In 1965, salaries for experienced agricultural agents ranged from $9,000 to $15,500. Salaries of experienced home demonstration agents ranged from $7,000 to $11,500 annually. Where To G o for More Information Additional information may be obtained from County Extension Offices, State Directors of Ex tension located at each State College of Agricul ture, or the Federal Extension Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., 20250. (Also see statement on Home Economists.) Soil Scientists (2d ed. D.O.T. 0-35.03) (3d ed. D.O.T. 040.081) Nature of Work Soil scientists study the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics and behavior of soils. They investigate soils both in the field and the laboratory and classify them according to a national system of soil classification. From their research, soil scientists can classify soils in terms of response to management practices and capa bility for producing crops, grasses, and trees, as well as their utility as engineering materials. Soil scientists prepare maps, usually based on aerial photographs, on which they plot the indi vidual kinds of soil and other landscape features significant to soil use and management in rela tion to land lines, field boundaries, roads, and other conspicuous features. Soil scientists also conduct research to deter mine the physical and chemical properties of soils and their water relationships, in order to understand their behavior and origin. They pre dict the yields of cultivated crops, grasses, and trees, under alternative combinations of manage ment practices. The field of soil science offers opportunities for those who wish to specialize in soil classification and mapping, soil geography, soil chemistry, soil physics, soil microbiology, and soil management. Training and experience in soil science will also prepare persons for positions as farm managers, land appraisers, and many other professional positions. Where Employed Most soil scientists are employed by agencies of the Federal Government, State experiment stations, and colleges of agriculture. However, 802 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK many are employed in a wide range of other public and private institutions, including ferti lizer companies, private research laboratories, insurance companies, banks and other lending agencies, real estate firms, land appraisal boards, State highway departments, State and city park departments, State conservation departments, and farm management agencies. A few are inde pendent consultants or work for consulting firms. An increasing number are employed in foreign countries as research leaders, consultants, and agricultural managers. The demand is increasing for soil scientists to help complete the scientific classification and evaluation of the soil resources in the United States. One of the major program objectives of the Soil Conservation Service of the U.S. Depart ment of Agriculture is to complete the soil sur vey of all rural lands in the United States. This program includes research, soil classification and correlation, interpretation of results for use by agriculturists and engineers, and training of others in use of the results. Also, demand is increasing for both basic and applied research to increase the efficiency of soil use. Training and Advancement Training in a college or university of recog nized standing is important in obtaining em ployment as a soil scientist. The B.S. degree is a minimum requirement for entrance into this occupation. Those with graduate training— especially those with the doctor’s degree—can be expected to advance rapidly into responsible positions with good pay. This is particularly true in soil research, including the more responsible positions in soil classification, and in teaching. Soil scientists who are qualified for work with both field arid laboratory data have a special advantage. Many colleges and universities offer fellow ships and assistantships for graduate training or employ graduate students for part-time teaching or research. Employment Outlook Opportunities for well-trained soil scientists are expected to be favorable through the mid1970’s. A number of positions were vacant in early 1965 because of the shortage of qualified persons. Earnings The incomes of soil scientists depend upon their education, professional experience, and in dividual abilities. The entrance salary in the Federal service for soil scientists wuth a B.S. degree was $5,000 a year in early 1965, with advancement to $6,050 after 1 year of satisfactory performance. Further advancement depends upon the individual’s ability to do high-quality work and to accept responsibility. Earnings of wellqualified Federal soil scientists with several years’ experience ranged from about $9,000 to $14,000 per year. Where To G o for More Information Additional information may be obtained from the U.S. Civil Service Commission, Washington, D.C. 20415; Office of Personnel, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250; or any office of the Department’s Soil Conservation Service. Also see statements on Chemists and Biologists. Soil Conservationists (2d ed. D.O.r '. 0-35.03) (3d ed. D.O.' \ 040.081) Nature of Work Soil conservationists supply farmers, ranchers, and others with technical assistance in planning, applying, and maintaining measures and struc tural improvements for soil and water conserva tion on individual holdings, groups of holdings, or on watersheds. Farmers and other land man agers use this technical assistance in making adjustments in land use; protecting land against soil deterioration; rebuilding eroded and de pleted soils; stabilizing runoff and sedimentproducing areas; improving cover on crop, for 803 OCCUPATIONS IN AGRICULTURE est, pasture, range, and wildlife lands; conserv ing water for farm and ranch use and reducing damage from flood water and sediment; and in draining or irrigating farms or ranches. The types of technical services provided by soil conservationists are: Maps presenting in ventories of soil, water, vegetation, and other details essential in conservation planning and application; information on the proper land uses and the treatment suitable for the planned use of each field or part of the farm or ranch, groups of farms or ranches, or entire water sheds; and estimates of the relative cost of, and expected returns from, various alternatives of land use and treatment. After the landowner or operator decides upon a conservation program that provides for the land to be used within its capability and treated according to the planned use, the conservationist records the relevant facts as part of a plan which, together with the maps and other supplemental information, constitute an overall plan of action for conservation farming or ranching. The soil conservationist then gives the land manager tech nical guidance in applying and maintaining the conservation practices. Where Employed Most soil conservationists are employed by the Federal Government, mainly by the U.S. Depart ment of Agriculture’s Soil Conservation Service and the Bureau of Indian Affairs in the Depart ment of the Interior. Some are employed by colleges and State and local governments; others work for banks and public utilities. ranch conservation and land use planning. A college degree is not required for subprofessional soil conservationists whose primary work is to help farmers or ranchers in applying conserva tion practices after plans for conservation have been completed. Professional soil conservationists with unusual aptitude in the various phases of the work have good chances of advancement to higher salaried technical and administrative jobs. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for well-trained soil conservationists were good in 1965. Oppor tunities in the profession will expand because government agencies, public utility companies, banks, and other organizations are becoming in creasingly interested in conservation and are adding conservationists to their staffs. Other new openings will occur in college teaching, particu larly at the undergraduate level. In addition, some openings will arise because of the normal turnover in personnel. Earnings In early 1965, the entrance salary for soil conservationists with a B.S. degree employed by the Federal Government was $5,000 a year, with advancement to $6,050 after 1 year of satisfactory service. Further advancement depends upon the individual’s ability to accept greater responsi bility. Earnings of well-qualified Federal soil conservationists with several years’ experience range from $9,000 to $14,000 a year. Where To G o for More Information Training and Advancement A bachelor’s degree is the minimum require ment for professional soil conservationists. Grad uates with degrees in forestry, biology, agronomy, engineering, range management, and general agriculture are eligible to become soil conserva tionists after special field training in farm and Additional information on employment as a soil conservationist may be obtained from the U.S. Civil Service Commission, Washington, D.C. 20415; Employment Division, Office of Personnel, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250; or any office of the Department's Soil Conservation Service. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 804 Other Professional Workers Nature of Work There are many other professional opportuni ties in agriculture for people trained in various technical fields. The following are general work descriptions of technically trained persons em ployed in occupations related to agriculture: Biochemists deal with the chemical compounds and processes occurring in living plants and animals. Entomologists study insects, both beneficial and harmful in farming. They are especially concerned with developing measures to control insects that injure growing crops and animals, harm human beings, and damage agricultural commodities in storage, processing, and distribu tion. Embryologists study the formation and devel opment of the embryos of plants and animals. Bacteriologists conduct microbiological and fermentation research to produce vitamins, anti biotics, amino acids, sugars, and polymers, by the action of micro-organisms. Plant and animal pathologists conduct research on causes and control of plant and animal dis eases, including those caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses, and physiological conditions. Geneticists try to develop strains, varieties, breeds, and hybrids of plants and animals that are better suited to the production of food and fiber than those now available. Plant and animal husbandry specialists are concerned with methods of caring for and managing plants and animals for the production of food and fiber. Human nutritionists study the process by which the human body utilizes food substances. Agricultural engineers develop new and im proved farm machines and equipment, study the physical aspects of soil and water problems in farming, devise new techniques for harvesting and processing farm products, and design more efficient farm buildings. Agricultural economists deal primarily with problems related to the production, financing, and marketing of farm products. They are fact finders, evaluators, analysts, and interpreters who help farmers with economic affairs. Rural sociologists study the structure and func tions of the social institutions (customs, practices, and laws) that are a part of or affect rural society. Many of the above specialties are discussed in greater detail elsewhere in the Handbook. Where Employed Persons trained in these specialties work in various capacities that relate to agriculture. Some are engaged in research for government agencies, colleges, agricultural experiment sta tions, and private businesses that deal with farmers. Others have technical and administra tive responsibilities in public agencies that deal with farmers or whose programs affect farmers. Some are employed by cooperatives, and by private business, commercial, and financial com panies that buy from, sell to, or serve farmers. Others serve in vocational agriculture teaching, in agricultural communications work, in farm ers’ organizations, or in trade associations whose members deal with farmers. The number of research activities related to agriculture has increased rapidly within the past several decades. The largest agencies in this field are the State experiment stations connected with the land-grant colleges and the various research branches of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Other research organizations include some en gaged in independent research, and others con nected with companies that finance farming oper ations, market farm products, or produce chem icals, equipment, and other supplies or services for farmers. The U.S. Department of Agri culture employs workers in research positions in various parts of the country: In Washington, D.C., and the nearby Agricultural Research Cen ter at Beltsville, Md.; at land-grant colleges; and at numerous other places. Other govern ment departments also have many agricultural research jobs. Various independent research organizations, foundations, and private business groups in many parts of the country have recently initiated research relating to agriculture. They tend to be located either in industrial centers or in areas OCCUPATIONS IN AGRICULTURE of high agricultural activity, and include pro ducers of feed, seed, fertilizer, farm equipment; and insecticides, herbicides, and other chemical dusts and sprays. Public and private lending institutions, which make loans to farmers, employ men with broad training in agriculture and business. These work ers are ordinarily required to have had practical farm experience, as well as academic training in agriculture, economics, and other subjects. Making financially sound loans involves careful analysis of the farm business and proper evalu ation of farm real estate and other farm prop erty. Trained personnel in lending institutions, therefore, are the key to sound credit practices in financing farmers. They are employed by the cooperative Farm Credit Administration in its banks and in associations operating under its supervision throughout the country; by the Farmers Home Administration in its Washing ton and county offices; by rural banks; and by insurance companies that have substantial invest ments in farm mortgages. The Federal and State governments also em ploy various specialists in activities relating to agriculture. These specialists have technical and managerial responsibilities in activities such as programs relating to the production, marketing, inspection, and grading of farm products, pre vention of the spread of plant pests, animal para sites, and diseases; and management and control of wildlife. Large numbers of professionally trained per sons are employed by cooperatives and business firms that deal with farmers. Employment in these organizations may be expected to expand, as farmers rely increasingly on them to provide farm supplies, machinery, equipment, and serv ices, and to market farm products. The size of the organization and the types of services it offers determine the number of its employees and the nature of their jobs. Large farm supply cooperatives and businesses, for example, may have separate divisions for feed, seed, fertilizer, petroleum, chemicals, farm machinery, and pub lic relations and credit, each supervised by a department head. In smaller businesses and cooperatives, such as local grain-marketing ele 805 vators, the business is run almost entirely by the general manager with only two or three helpers. Another expanding area of specialization is that of agricultural communications. Crop re porters and market news reporters are employed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in field offices throughout the United States. Crop re porters gather information on crop production during all stages of the growing season. Market news reporters collect information on movement of agricultural produce from the farm to the market. Radio and TV farm directors are em ployed by many radio and TV stations to report prices, sales, grades, and other agricultural infor mation to farm people. Agricultural reporters and editors compile farm news and data for farm journals, bulletins, and broadcasts. Closely related to agricultural communications is em ployment in farmers’ organizations or in-trade associations whose members deal with farmers. The nationwide, federally aided program of vocational education continues to offer employ ment for persons technically trained in agricul ture and related subjects. Instruction under this program is given in public high schools and in classes organized for persons over 14 years of age “who have entered upon or who are preparing to enter upon the work of the farm or the farm home.” Vocational agriculture teachers also su pervise farm programs and give instruction in farm mechanics in school shops. They also serve as advisers to the local chapters of the Future Farmers of America. In addition to work with “in-school” . students, the teachers provide orga nized instruction to assist young farmers in be coming satisfactorily established in farming and in becoming community leaders. They also pro vide organized instruction for adult farmers, with individual consultation on their farms to keep them abreast of modern farm technology. The qualifications of workers in all of these fields ordinarily include a college education with special training in a particular line of work. In most of these fields, the demand for workers exceeds the supply. In recent years, the demand has been increased by the recruitment of profes sional personnel to staff agricultural missions and give technical aid to agricultural institutions and farmers in other countries. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 806 Where To G o for More Information Opportunities in Research. Additional infor mation on research opportunities at land-grant colleges may be obtained from the dean of agri culture at the State land-grant college. Informa tion on employment in the TT.S. Department of Agriculture is available from the USDA recruit ment representatives at land-grant colleges and from the Office of Personnel, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., 20250. The following publications will be valuable: P ro files-C a reers in th e U .S . D ep a rtm en t of A g ric u l U.S. Department of Agriculture, September 1964. Superintendent of Documents, GPO, Wash ington, D.C. 20402. Price $2. tu re, C h oose a C h a llen g in g and R ew a rd in g C a r e e r in th e Miscellaneous Publication 833, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250. T h e r e i s a N e w C h a l l e n g e i n A g r i c u l t u r e , American Association of Land-Grant Colleges and State Uni versities, Washington, D.C., 1962. Copies can be obtained from your State Agricultural College. U .S . D ep a rtm en t of A g ric u ltu re, Opportunities in Agricultural Finance. In quiries on employment opportunities in agricul tural finance may be directed to the following: Farm Credit Administration, Washington, D.C. 20578. Farm Credit District—Springfield, M ass.; Baltimore, Md.; Columbia, S.C.; Louisville, K y .; New Orleans, L a.; St. Louis, M o.; St. Paul, M inn.; Omaha. Nebr.; Wichita, K ans.; Houston, T ex .; Berkeley, C alif.; Spokane, Wash. Farmers Home Administration, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D.C. 20250. Agricultural Director, American Bankers Association, 12 East 36th St., New York, N.Y. 10016. Opportunities with Cooperatives. Farmer co operatives are located in every State. Information relating to job opportunities in farmer coopera tives may be obtained from local or regional cooperatives. If no jobs are available with these cooperatives, they may be able to make referrals to others which have openings. Other sources of information are the county agent and the Agri cultural Economics Departments of State Agri cultural Colleges. General information may be obtained from the American Institute of Coopera tion or the National Council of Farmer Coopera tives, both located at 1200 17th St. NW., Washing ton, D.C., 20036, and the Cooperative League of the U.S.A., 59 East Van Buren St., Chicago, 111., 60605. Opportunities for Agricultural' Economists. For additional information about opportunities in agricultural economics, check with the Depart ment of Agricultural Economics at State landgrant college. For information on Federal em ployment opportunities, applicants may get in touch with USDA recruitment representatives at the State land-grant college or write directly to the Office of Personnel, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., 20250. Opportunities as Vocational Agriculture Teach ers. As salaries, travel, and programs of voca tional agriculture teachers vary slightly among States, prospective teachers should consult the Head Teacher Trainer in Agriculture Education at the land-grant college or the State Supervisor of Agricultural Education at the State Depart ment of Public Instruction in their respective States. Farm Service Jobs In almost every type of agriculture, farmers require specialized services which can be readily learned and performed by other workers. A per son can enter many of these services, either as an independent operator or as an employee. Some services require an extensive outlay of capital, and others require very little. Some are highly seasonal; others are performed year round. These services can sometimes be combined well with operation of a small farm. Services that provide year-round employment include: Cow testing, artificial breeding, live stock trucking, whitewashing, well drilling, fenc ing, and tilling. In cow testing and artificial breeding, an asso ciation of farmers employs one or more workers on a monthly basis to conduct the operations. Supervisors who do cow testing are employed by dairy herd improvement associations. They must have a high school education, and a farm background is almost essential. In 1965, annual salaries were from about $3,500 to $8,000. Arti ficial breeding associations employ inseminators who must have at least a high school education. OCCUPATIONS IN AGRICULTURE In 1965, these workers were paid from about $4,500 to $14,000 a year. Agricultural college training is desirable but not essential for employ ment in these occupations. Brief periods of approximately a month of specialized training are available through the associations. Other services for farmers are more seasonal. These include: Fruit spraying (2-3 months) air plane dusting (4-6 months), grain combining (2 months), hay and straw baling (2-8 months), tractor plowing and cultivating (4-6 months), and sheep shearing (2-3 months). These and many other services are often done by farmers who engage in custom work as a sideline to keep their equipment busy. In areas where the growing season is long, however, the period when these services can be carried on is 807 long enough to permit individuals to specialize in them. Somewhat more remote from farm operation but still closely tied in with agriculture are such activities as repairing and servicing farm machin ery; feed grinding and mixing; maintaining stor ages and warehouses of agricultural products; operation of nurseries and greenhouses; and pack ing, grading, and processing of farm products. Although these activities are sometimes per formed on the farm, the current trend is to con duct them as specialized lines of business away from the farm. An agricultural background is helpful to people who enter these lines of work. The agricultural aspects, however, can be learned more readily than the required specialized skills. Occupations in Government Government service, one of the Nation’s largest fields of employment, provided jobs for more than 9.5 million civilian workers in 1964—almost 1 out of every 6 persons employed in the United States. About three-fourths of these workers were employed by State or local governments (county, city, town, village, or other local gov ernment division); the rest worked for the Fed eral Government, either in the United States or abroad. Opportunities for jobs in government service will be very favorable during the 1965-75 decade. Rapid growth is expected in State and local government employment, continuing the trend in the post-World War I I period. Only a small increase is expected in Federal employ ment. Large numbers of job opportunities will arise in Federal, State, and local governments from the need to replace workers who retire, or die, or leave government service. Altogether several hundred thousand individuals will be hired each year for jobs in a wide variety of occupations, ranging from messenger to nuclear physicist. Government service will continue to be an important source of job opportunities for women. In 1964, 40 percent of all government workers were women, most of whom were in clerical or teaching jobs. Government employees are a significant part of the nonagricultural work force in every State, ranging from 1 in 10 in Connecticut to mcjre than 4 in 10 in Alaska. Their jobs are found not only in capital cities, county seats, and metropolitan areas, but also in small towns and villages, and even in remote and isolated spots such as light house installations and forest ranger stations. Government Activities and Occupations In 1964, about a third of all government workers were engaged in providing educational services (chart 41) ; the majority were in schools 808 and colleges supported by State and local gov ernments. In addition to teachers, employees in this field included administrative and clerical workers, maintenance workers, librarians, dieti tians, nurses, and counselors. The great majority of workers in educational services were employed in elementary and secondary schools. The second largest group of government workers were engaged in national defense ac tivities of the Federal Government. This group, numbering more th an ' a million employees, in cluded civilians working in the Department of Defense and a few other defense-related agencies such as the Atomic Energy Commission. Among this group were administrative and clerical em ployees, doctors, nurses, teachers, engineers, scien tists, technicians, and craftsmen and other manual workers. Employees in this group worked in offices, research laboratories, navy yards, arsenals, and missile launching sites, and in hospitals and schools run by the military services. Other large concentrations of employees were in health services and hospitals, the postal service, and highway work. Workers were also employed by government agencies in activities such as housing and community development, police and fire protection, social security and public welfare services, transportation and public utilities, con servation of natural resources, tax enforcement and other financial functions, as well as in general administrative, judicial, and legislative activities. Most employees in the health and hospital fields, in highway work, and in police and fire protec tion activities worked for State and local govern ment agencies. On the other hand, jobs in na tional defense and in the postal service are Federal, as are over half the jobs concerned with natural resources, such as those in the National Park and Forestry Services. The wide variety of government functions re quires employees in many different occupations. 809 OCCUPATIONS IN GOVERNMENT Because of the special character of many govern ment activities, the occupational distribution of employment is very different from that in pri vate industry, as shown in the distributions of employment in 1964, which follows: Occupation group Total. White-collar workers__ Professional and technical Managers, officials, and proprie tors__ ClericalSales_____ - _ - _ Blue-collar workers. Craftsmen, foremen Operatives_______ Nonfarm laborers Service workers Farm workers _ __ — Percent of— Govern Nongovern ment ment em ployem ploym e n t1 ment 100 63 35 100 41 9 6 22 11 14 7 39 13 20 5 12 7 (2) 19 9 5 5 18 (2) CHART 41 M AJO R A REA S OF GOVERNM ENT EM PLOYMENT . . . . 500 Thousands of employees, October 1964 \J 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 Education National defense Hospitals (including health services) Postal service Highways All other 2/ ian employees including those ! United States and 38,000 employees Guard paid directly from the f Source: Bureau of the Census. 1 Data exclude overseas Federal employment. 2 Less than 0.5 percent. Note: Because of rounding, sums of individual items may not equal totals. Although the many different governmental activities require a diversified work force with many different levels of education, training, and skill, the majority of government employees are white-collar workers. In 1964, over 60 percent of government employment (nearly 6 million) was in professional and technical, managerial, clerical, and some sales occupations—the so-called “whitecollar” jobs. Among the largest occupational groups were teachers; postal clerks; and office workers such as stenographers, typists, and clerks. Some important occupations and occupational groups among the approximately 3.5 million serv ice, craft, and other manual workers, were aircraft and automotive mechanics and repairmen; police men; firemen; truckdrivers; skilled maintenance workers (for example, carpenters, painters, plumbers, and electricians); custodial workers; and laborers. The following chapters discuss, first, opportuni ties for civilian employment in the major divisions of government and then opportunities in the various branches of the Armed Forces. A separate chapter gives detailed information on post office occupations. CIVILIAN EMPLOYMENT Federal Government The Federal Government, the largest employer in the United States, had over 2.5 million civilian workers in 1964, including 160,000 who worked in overseas posts. Federal employees were en gaged in occupations representing nearly every kind of job in private employment, as well as some unique to the Federal Government such as postal clerk, border patrolman, immigration inspector, foreign service officer, and Internal Revenue agent. Practically all Federal employees worked for the departments and agencies that make up the executive branch of the government. The others were employed in the legislative and judi cial branches. The executive branch includes the Office of the President, the 10 departments with cabinet repre sentation, and a number of independent agencies, commissions, and boards. This branch is respon sible for such activities as administering Federal laws; handling international relations; conserv ing resources; treating and rehabilitating disabled veterans; delivering the mail; maintaining the flow of supplies to the Armed Forces; and ad ministering other programs to promote the health and welfare of the American people. The Department of Defense, which includes the Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force, was the largest agency, with more than a million civilian workers in 1964; the Post Office Depart ment employed nearly 600,000. The Veterans Administration and the Department of Agricul ture were the only other Federal agencies with more than 100,000 workers. The remaining em ployees of the executive branch were distributed among 70 or more departments, agencies, com missions, offices, and boards, where employment ranged from a few paid employees of small com missions, to large departments with 50,000 or more (Treasury; Health, Education, and Welfare: and the Interior). 810 Of the nearly 31,000 employees in the legislative and judicial branches, the majority were in the legislative branch, which includes the Congress, the Government Printing Office, the General Ac counting Office, the Library of Congress, the Office of the Architect of the Capitol, and the U.S. Botanic Gardens. The remaining workers were employed by the judicial branch, which includes the Supreme Court and the other United States courts. About two-thirds of all Federal employees were full-time white-collar workers. The great major ity of white-collar workers (about 85 percent) were in nonprofessional occupations. More than a third of these nonprofessional workers were in clerical jobs; for example, as secretaries, stenog raphers, typists, clerks, office machine operators, or receptionists. Postal clerks, carriers, and post masters made up another third. The remainder were employed in a variety of occupations such as fiscal clerk, inspector, investigator, hospital worker, and nonprofessional scientific or technical worker. The remaining 15 percent of the white-collar workers were in professional occupations. Major fields of professional employment in the Federal Government included engineering; medical serv ices; accounting; physical, biological, and social sciences; education; law; and mathematics. Nearly a third of all Federal professional em ployees were engineers, over half of whom worked for the Department of Defense. Large numbers of engineers also were employed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the Department of the Interior, and the Depart ments of Commerce and Agriculture. The second largest group of Federal profes sional employees were engaged in medical and related services. The largest numbers of profes sionals in these fields were nurses and doctors, the 811 OCCUPATIONS IN GOVERNMENT majority of whom were employed by the Veterans Administration and by the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Other occupations in medical services in which large numbers of pro fessional workers were employed included den tists, public health administrators, dietitians, medical technologists, and pharmacists. Another large group of professional employees were ac countants (including Internal Revenue agents), employed principally in the Treasury Department, Department of Defense, General Accounting Of fice, and Department of Agriculture. Over a fourth of the physical scientists in the Federal Government were chemists; large num bers of whom were employed by the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, and the De partment of Agriculture. Other physical scientists employed by the Federal Government included physicists, cartographers, meteorologists, and geologists. Many physical scientists worked in the research program of NASA. The majority of biological scientists were em ployed by the Department of Agriculture in areas such as botally, plant pathology, soil conservation, forestry, and entomology. The Department of the Interior also employed a substantial number of biological scientists. Among social scientists, the single largest group were economists, who were employed throughout the Federal Government. Other large groups of social scientists included specialists in foreign affairs and international trade, employed prin cipally in the State Department; and psychol ogists and social workers, most of whom worked in the Veterans Administration. A large number of lawyers were employed by the Department of Justice; substantial numbers of lawyers also worked for the Department of Defense; the Treasury Department ; and the National Labor Relations Board. Although relatively few mathematicians, mathe matical statisticians, and general statisticians were employed by the Federal Government in 1964, this number has been increasing. Over half of the mathematicians were employed by the Depart ment of Defense. Substantial numbers were also in the Department of Commerce. In addition to the many white-collar occupa tions in the Federal Government, many different blue collar jobs—service, craft, and manual labor —provided employment to over half a million workers in 1964. The majority of these workers were in establishments such as naval shipyards; arsenals; air bases; quartermaster depots; con struction projects; and harbor, flood-control, irri gation, or reclamation projects. Approximately three-fourths of these workers were employed by the Department of Defense. Most of the remain ing employees were engaged in activities of the Veterans Administration, Post Office, General Services Administration, Department of the In terior, Tennessee Valley Authority, and Depart ment of Agriculture. Among individual service, craft, and manual labor occupations, the largest single group oper ated or maintained mobile industrial equipment such as fork-lift trucks, rigging equipment, tractor-trailers and other trucking equipment, or repaired automotive and engineering equipment. The second largest group were employed in manual labor occupations. Once the largest group of Federal blue-collar workers, employment in this group decreased by nearly 30 percent in recent years. Other occupations with large num bers of blue-collar employees included fixed in dustrial equipment operators and mechanics, general machining workers, mess hall attendants, aircraft mechanics, painters, steamfitters, and carpenters. A small but rapidly growing field of work is that of electronic equipment instrument making, repairing, and installing. (Detailed descriptions of the work duties of most white-collar, service, craft, and manual labor jobs mentioned above are provided in other sec tions of the Handbook.) Federal employees are stationed in all parts of the United States and its territories and in many foreign countries. Most Government de partments and agencies have their headquarters offices in the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area; nearly 270,000 Federal workers were em ployed in that area in 1964. California, with nearly 250,000 Federal employees, had almost as many. Other States with more than 100,000 Fed eral workers included New York, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Illinois. The Merit System Approximately 9 out of 10 jobs in the Federal Government in the United States in 1964 were 812 covered by the Civil Service Act. This act was passed by the Congress to ensure that Federal employees are hired on the basis of individual merit and fitness. It provides for competitive examinations and the selection of new employees from among those who make the highest scores. The U.S. Civil Service Commission, which ad ministers the Civil Service Act, is responsible for examining and rating applicants and supplying Federal departments and agencies with names of persons who are eligible for the jobs to be filled. Some Federal jobs are excepted from Civil Service requirements either by law or by action of the Civil Service Commission. However, a large percentage of the excepted positions are under separate merit systems of other agencies, such as the Foreign Service of the Department of State, the Department of Medicine and Surgery of the Veterans Administration, the Federal Bureau of Investigation of the Department of Justice, the Atomic Energy Commission, and the Tennessee Valley Authority. These agencies established their own standards for the selection of new employees. Civil service competitive examinations may be taken by all persons who are citizens of the United States, or who owe permanent allegiance to the United States (in the case of residents of American Somoa). To be eligible for appoint ment, an applicant must meet minimum age, training, and experience requirements for the particular position, and be physically able to perform the duties of the position. Examinations vary according to the types of positions for which they are held; Some examinations include writ ten tests; others do not. In nonwritten examina tions, applicants are rated on the basis of the experience and training described in their appli cations and any corroborating evidence required by the Commission. The Civil Service Commis sion periodically conducts examinations to fill vacancies in the wide variety of occupations needed to operate the Federal Government. (See page. 815 for sources of information concerning examinations.) The Commission notifies applicants whether they have achieved eligible or ineligible ratings, and enters the names of eligible applicants on a list in the order of their scores. When a Federal agency requests names of eligible applicants for OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK a job vacancy, the Commission sends the agency the names at the top of the appropriate list. The appointing officer in the requesting agency can select any one of the top three available eligibles. Names of those not selected by this agency are restored to the list for consideration in connec tion with other job openings. Appointments to civil service jobs are made without regard to an applicant’s race, color, re ligion, national origin, politics, or sex. A Federal employee who is laid off is entitled to unemployment compensation similar to that provided for employees in private industry. He is covered by the unemployment insurance sys tem in the State or area in which he worked. Employment Trends and Outlook Federal employment remained relatively stable during the past decade, despite a population in crease of about 30 million, huge expenditures for missile and space research and development, and growing Federal health, welfare, postal, and other services. (See chart 42.) Factors which contributed to this stability included efforts to ward greater efficiency and economy in agency operations; and significant advances in automatic data processing. By 1964, Federal employment was about 2.5 million—only slightly higher than a decade earlier. CHART 42 TREND IN FEDERAL G O V ERN M EN T EMPLOYMENT Millions of employees 4 3 2 I 0 1929 1935 1940 1945 1950 1955 I9 6 0 1965 i/ D a ta include Alaska and Hawaii beginning with 1959, and are therefore not strictly comparable with previous years. Note: Data relate to civilian employment only and exclude Central Intelligence Agency and National Security Agency 813 OCCUPATIONS IN GOVERNMENT The manpower requirements of the Federal Government are a direct reflection of the demand for services by an increasing population, of the country’s domestic and international programs, and of changes in technology and methods of operation. Population expansion has increased the need for a wide range of government services which required, for example, greater numbers of air traffic controllers, social security claims examiners, accounting and budget workers, mail carriers, and business and industry specialists. Laws providing new or expanded services to the public, resulted in increased employment of food and drug inspectors, highway engineers, and edu cation personnel. Employment in legal and kin dred occupations also increased, mainly because there are more laws and regulations to interpret, administer, and enforce; and more claims to exam ine for payment of retirement, disability, and death benefits. Federal employment gains in science, engineer ing, and other fields reflect the demands of vigor ous national research and development efforts in a variety of programs, such as space exploration, military weapons, nuclear energy, medicine and health, air defense, and airport traffic control. For example, the number of professional engi neers rose by an estimated 70 percent between 1954 and 1964. Scientists (particularly physical science administrators), biological scientists, and mathematicians, also experienced rapid employ ment gains. Medical personnel increased because of greater Federal expenditures for medical re search and public health services and growing medical assistance to aging war veterans. The number of air traffic controllers showed spectacu lar growth, reflecting Federal efforts to main tain air safety standards as public and private air traffic increased tremendously. Technological advances have also affected the composition of the Federal work force. Increasing use of electronic data-processing equipment for administrative management, program operations, and scientific and engineering purposes in Federal agencies has inhibited the growth of clerical per sonnel, but created new occupations, such as sys tems analyst, computer programer, and computer operator. The introduction of quick-copy equip ment in many government offices is reducing the need for personnel whose skill is limited to typing. By contrast, there is an increasing need for stenog rapher-secretaries. Opportunities for employment in the Federal Government will continue to be very favorable during the 1965-75 decade. As in the past, several hundred thousand job opportunities will become available each year because of the need to replace employees who are promoted, leave the Federal service, retire, or die. Only a small increase in the total number of Federal employees is expected in the 1965-75 decade. A number of factors will tend to limit employment growth, among them, the closing of obsolete government facilities. In addition, the increasing use of electronic data-processing, quickcopy, and materials handling equipment, and the introduction of data-transmission and communica tions systems, will contribute to laborsavings in Federal operations. Anticipated changes in the relative importance of Federal programs are likely to affect the num ber and type of employees needed to carry out major Federal functions. For example, the de fense manpower ceilings established by Congress may result in some decrease in manpower require ments for defense activities. In the postal service, manpower needs are likely to continue to rise and manpower requirements for other major Federal functions may also increase somewhat due to recently enacted programs relating to education, economic opportunities, area redevelopment, and medical and scientific research and development. Most of the increase in Federal employment will be in professional, technical, and managerial occupations. Little growth is expected in clerical jobs, and the trend toward fewer blue-collar jobs is expected to continue. Earnings, Advancement, and Working Conditions Federal civilian employees are paid under sev eral pay systems. In June 1965, the distribution was approximately as follows: 46 percent of all full-time employees were under the Classification Act; 22 percent, under the Postal Pay Act; 26 percent, under the wage board pay system; and the rest were under other pay systems. Pay rates of employees under the Classification Act are set by the Congress and are nationwide. This act provides a pay scale—called the General Schedule—for employees in professional, ad OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 814 ministrative, technical, and clerical jobs, and for employees such as guards and messengers. Gen eral Schedule jobs are classified and arranged in 18 pay grades according to difficulty of the duties, and the responsibilities, knowledge, experience, or skill required. The distribution of Federal whitecollar employees by grades, the entrance and maxi mum salaries, and the amount of periodic increases for each grade, are listed in the accompanying table. D is t r ib u t io n U n d e r th e G r a d e L of C e v e l A ll F u ll -T im e F A , l a s s if ic a t io n a n d S ala ry Sc ct a le e d e r a l J , E u n e E m plo y ees 30, 1965, f f e c t iv e O c t . b y 10, 1965 S a la r ie s 2 E m p lo y e e s G e n e r a l sc h e d u le grade 1_______________________ 2 ...........................................3 _______________________ 4 _______________________ 5_______________________ 6 _______________________ 7 _______________________ 8 _______________________ 9 _______________________ 10_____ ________________ 11 ______________________ 12_________ _______ _____ 13______________________ 14______________________ 15 ______________________ 16______________________ 17______________________ 18 ____________________ N um ber P ercen t 1,112,455 100.0 1,809 3 2,503 133,621 169,328 133,483 55,476 95,493 19,105 128,106 16,147 120,565 91,713 65,048 31,236 14,949 2 ,760 800 313 0 .2 2 .9 12.0 15.2 12.0 5 .0 8 .6 1.7 11.5 1.5 10.8 8 .2 5 .8 2 .8 1.3 .2 .1 (>) E n tr a n c e P e r io d ic in cr ea ses $3, 507 3 ,8 1 4 4,149 4,641 5,181 5,702 6 ,2 6 9 6 ,8 6 9 7,4 7 9 8,1 8 4 8, 961 10,619 12,510 14,680 17,055 19,619 22,217 25,382 $119 129 140 156 171 192 207 228 254 280 306 368 435 508 590 678 777 M a x i m um $4,578 4,975 5,409 6 ,0 4 5 6, 720 7,4 3 0 8,1 3 2 8,921 9 ,7 6 5 10,704 11,715 13,931 16,425 19,252 2 2 ,365 25.043 2 5 ,325 1 L e s s th a n 0.05 p e r c e n t. 2 T h is s a la r y sc a le w a s m a d e e ffe c tiv e b y th e F e d e r a l E m p lo y e e s S a la r y A c t o f 1965 w h ic h w a s s ig n e d in to la w b y th e P r e s id e n t o n O ct. 30, 1965. T h e s e r a te s , h o w e v e r , are n o t r e flecte d in th e in d iv id u a l o c c u p a tio n a l s ta te m e n ts in t h e Handbook, b e c a u se t h e y b eca m e e ffe c tiv e to o la te to m e e t th e p r in tin g d e a d lin e for t h e in d iv id u a l s ta te m e n ts . Although new appointments must usually be made at the minimum rate of the salary range for the appropriate grade, employees may be hired at higher rates when the Government’s ability to recruit and retain well-qualified personnel is handicapped by substantially higher salaries in private enterprise. For example, in 1961, em ployees were being recruited at above-minimum rates for engineering and certain physical science jobs. Promotions depend upon the ability and work performance of the individual, and generally, upon openings in jobs at higher grades. Em ployees frequently get promotions by qualifying for jobs at higher grades. Promotions may also be obtained when jobs are reclassified to a higher grade to reflect more difficult work assignments and increased responsibilities. More than 545,000 full-time craft, service, and manual workers employed by the Federal Govern ment in the United States in 1964 were paid under the wage board system. The pay rates for these workers are fixed by wage boards on the basis of “prevailing” rates paid for similar work by private employers in the areas where they work, rather than by legislation. The average (median) annual pay of employees under this system was $6,074 in 1964. The following tabulation of ArmyAir Force Wage Board pay rates for selected occupations in specific labor market areas, in November 1964, illustrates hourly wage rates for workers paid under the wage board system. S o u r c e : U .S . C iv il S e r v ic e C o m m is sio n . City Employees in all grades except GS-18 receive within-grade increases after they have completed the required service periods, if their work is de termined to be of an acceptable level of compe tence. Additional within-grade increases may be given in recognition of high-quality service. Most young people appointed to professional positions enter at grade GS-5, with some appoint ments at GS-7 of especially well-qualified individ uals. An eligible individual who holds a master’s degree, or the equivalent in education or experi ence, usually enters at grade GS-7, and those who are especially well qualified may enter at grade GS-9. In addition, the Federal Government also appoints very well-qualified, experienced people at the GS-11 level and above. These appointments are for such positions as psychologist, statistician, economist, writer and editor, budget analyst, ac countant, and physicist. Atlanta, Ga Boston, Mass . Charleston, S.C Chicago, 111 _ Denver, Colo Fort Worth-Dallas, Tex____ Hampton Roads, Va Houston-Galveston, Tex___ Los Angeles, Calif _ New Orleans, La_ New York, N.Y.-Newark, N .J_____________________ Pensacola, Fla __ _ ____ Philadelphia, Pa _ _ Portsmouth, N.H Puget Sound, Wash. _ San Diego, Calif. _ _ San Francisco, Calif St. Louis, Mo. Washington, D.C Common laborer $2. 2. 1. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 05 30 97 48 33 06 08 27 52 16 2. 1. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 51 99 44 21 45 55 64 41 28 E lectrician $3. 02 3. 07 3.14 3. 35 3. 01 2. 94 3. 05 3. 12 3. 27 3. 14 3. 3. 3. 2. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 20 19 10 90 14 33 25 25 04 M achinist general $3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 2. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 16 18 28 50 11 07 17 25 37 26 * 30 32 21 99 25 43 35 36 15 S ource: A r m y -A ir F o r ce W a g e B o a r d , U .S . D e p a r tm e n t o f D e fe n se . R a te s are for th e s e c o n d s t e p o f a 3 -step p a y ra n g e, e ffe c tiv e N o v . 1, 1964. 815 OCCUPATIONS IN GOVERNMENT More than 75,000 full-time Federal Government employees in the United States in 1964 were paid under acts or orders other than those already discussed. Among the employees paid under the miscellaneous pay acts or orders were those work ing for the Tennessee Valley Authority, the For eign Service of the Department of State, and physicians, dentists, and nurses in the Department of Medicine and Surgery of the Veterans Ad ministration. The standard workweek for Federal Govern ment employees is 40 hours, and the pay sched ules are based on this workweek. If an employee is required to work more than 40 hours a week, he is either paid overtime rates for the additional time worked or given compensatory time off at a later date. Most employees usually work 8 hours a day, 5 days a week, Monday through Friday. However, the head of an agency may decide on a different schedule for his agency. Annual earnings, for most full-time Federal workers, are not affected by seasonal factors. Federal employees receive paid vacations and sick leave. They earn 13 days of annual (vaca tion) leave during each of their first 3 years of service, then 20 days each year until they have completed 15 years; after 15 years, they earn 26 days of leave each year. In addition, they earn 13 days of paid sick leave a year. Eight paid holidays are observed annually. Employees who are members of military reserve organizations are also granted up to 15 days of paid military leave a year for training purposes. Court leave with pay may be granted to employees to attend court as Government witnesses or for jury duty. Other benefits available to most Federal em ployees include: A contributory retirement sys tem providing annuities based on salary, length of service, and either age or disability, along with survivorship annuities; optional participation in low-cost group life and health insurance pro grams supported in part by the Government; compensation to employees injured in perform ance of duty; and employee training programs to develop maximum proficiency in the performance of official duties. These training programs may take place in Government facilities or in outside educational facilities at Government expense. 77S-316 O— 65—-— 53 Where To G o for More Information Information on Federal employment oppor tunities is available from a number of sources. For college students, the college placement office is often a good source of such information. High school students in many localities may obtain information from their high school vocational guidance counselors. Additional information about Federal job opportunities and Civil Serv ice competitive examinations may be obtained from the central and regional offices of the Civil Service Commission, State employment service offices, and many post offices. The offices of the U.S. Civil Service Commission are listed below along with the States included in each region. Central Office—U.S. Civil Service Commission, Wash ington, D.C. 20415. (Includes Washington, D.C., Metropolitan A rea; Montgomery and Prince Georges County, Md.; Alexandria and Falls Church cities, and Arlington and Fairfax Counties, V a.; and over seas areas except the Pacific.) Atlanta Region—Atlanta Merchandise Mart, 240 Peachtree St. NE., Atlanta, Ga. 30303. (Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Puerto Rico, and Virgin Islands.) Boston Region—Post Office and Courthouse Building, Boston, Mass. 02109. (Connecticut, Maine, Massa chusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Ver mont. ) Chicago Region—Main Post Office Building, 433 West Van Buren St., Chicago, 111. 60607. (Illinois, In diana, Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio, and Wisconsin.) Dallas Region—1114 Commerce St., Dallas, Tex. 75202. (Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas.) Denver Region—Building 41, Denver Federal Center, Denver, Colo. 80225. (Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming.) New York Region—News Building, 220 East 42d St., New York, N.Y. 10017. (New Jersey and New York.) Philadelphia Region—Customhouse, Second and Chest nut Sts., Philadelphia, Pa. 19106. (Delaware, Mary land, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and West Virginia.) St. Louis Region—1256 Federal Building, 1520 Market St., St. Louis, Mo. 63103. (Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska. North Dakota, and South Dakota.) San Francisco Region—Box 36010, 450 Golden Gate Ave., San Francisco, Calif. 94102. (California, Hawaii, Nevada, and the Pacific Overseas Area.) 816 Seattle Region—Federal Office Building, First Ave. and Madison St., Seattle, Wash. 98104. (Alaska, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, and Washington.) Information on career and competitive exami nation opportunities in Federal agencies which have separate career systems such as the Foreign Service, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK and the Atomic Energy Commission may be obtained by writing to their respective personnel offices in Washington, D.C. General information on administrative careers in government may be obtained from : The Amer ican Society for Public Administration, 1329 18th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. P O S T O FFICE O C C U P A T IO N S The mailman, with the familiar leather pouch over his shoulder, and the clerk behind the stamp window in the Post Office are the two employees of the Federal Government most familiar to the general public. Although we all receive or send mail almost every day, few people realize how many workers are employed by the Post Office Department and exactly what they do. Nearly 600,000 postal service workers were employed in about 38,000 separate installations throughout the United States in early 1965. These workers, employed in the- second largest agency in the Federal Government, collected and distributed more than 72 billion letters, post cards, news papers, magazines, parcels, and other items of mail. They also provided special mail services such as registration (giving evidence of mailing and delivery), insurance^and c.o.d. (the collection of the price of an article and the cost of postage from a customer upon delivery). Nonmail serv ices performed by postal workers include filling out and selling money orders and accepting deposits in postal savings accounts. Postal employment is concentrated in the larger centers of population. The metropolitan area of New York City, in its various post offices and other installations, has about 50,000 postal service workers, or about 8 percent of all postal service workers. Other large centers of postal employ ment include the Chicago, Los Angeles, Boston, and Philadelphia metropolitan areas. Postal jobs are also found in very small communities and in rural areas. Young people in these places may find postal employment particularly attractive in view of the limited opportunities which may exist for other employment. Approximately 10 percent of all postal employees are women, most of whom are employed in the smaller post offices. Young men may try postal work before mak ing a career choice, by getting a temporary job during vacation periods. From mid-December until Christmas Day, temporary workers are employed in many post offices to handle extra mail. In the summer months also, when regular employees usually take their vacations, some post offices hire temporary workers. Occupations in the Postal Service Unseen by the general public, the giant work rooms behind the lobbies of the big city post offices are busy centers of activity. At all hours of the day and night, an endless flow of mail moves from unloading platforms through the workrooms and out to loading platforms. In the workrooms, the mail goes through a series of separations in which it is sorted according to type of mail and destination. The people who do this sorting are called distribution clerks. (Another group of employees also distributes mail, but they do not work in the post office. These are the postal transportation clerks who work on a train or bus, sorting mail while moving.) Be hind counters in the lobby of the post office build ing are the window clerks who sell stamps and money orders, register and insure mail, and ac cept parcel post. In all, there were about 240,000 postal clerks throughout the country in early 1965. The city carriers are the second largest group of postal workers (about 170,000 in early 1965). These workers collect the mail which flows into the city post office and deliver the mail after it has been sorted by the distribution clerks. Rural carriers collect and deliver mail in the country and provide some of the services available in post offices. Both city and rural carriers cover assigned routes on regular schedules. Some city carriers may work exclusively delivering parcel post or collecting mail. (A detailed description of the duties, training, qualifications, employment out look, earnings, and working conditions for clerks and carriers appears in later sections of this chapter.) A relatively small number of postal employees deliver only special delivery mail. 817 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 818 C o u rtesy of th e U .S . P o st Office D ep artm en t The “Star” route carrier transports mail under contract with the Post Office Department and is not an employee of the Department. There were approximately 12,000 “Star” route contracts in early 1965. The length of the routes varied con siderably. Most of these carriers use trucks to carry the mail, but in certain remote areas where there are no roads some use horses or boats. In all post offices, bulk mail in large, heavy sacks must be loaded, unloaded, and moved about. In the smaller post offices, this work is performed by the clerks. In the larger post offices, mail handlers are employed to do most of this work. In addition to handling sacked mail, the mail handlers make rough separations of the mail into parcel post, paper mail, and letter mail, and bring the mail to distribution clerks for process ing. They also pick up the processed mail and put it into sacks. In early 1965, there were approx imately 30,000 mail handlers. About 29,500 postal supervisors and 11,000 postmasters directed the work of approximately 440,000 clerks, carriers, and mail handlers in the larger post offices. (About 23,000 additional post masters were employed in the small post offices.) Approximately 19,400 maintenance service employees were concerned with the operation, maintenance, and protection of post office build ings and equipment. About 12,000 of these em ployees were janitors, building guards, elevator operators, and laborers. The remainder were mechanics or craftsmen such as electricians, carpenters, and painters. The Post Office Department employed more than 5,000 motor vehicle operators who drove trucks transportating bulk mail. About 3,500 other employees were concerned with the maintenance of the trucks driven by the motor vehicle opera tors as well as the rest of the post office vehicle fleet, including more than 40,000 trucks and mailsters (light three-wheel motor vehicles) driven by carriers. This group included garagemen who did routine servicing of vehicles, automotive me chanics, body and fender repairmen, and parts clerks. About 1,000 postal inspectors are employed in the oldest investigative agency in the Federal Government—the Post Office Inspection Service. The main function of these employees is to inspect post offices to see that they are efficiently operated, that funds are being properly spent, and that postal laws and regulations are observed. Other principal duties include the prevention and detec tion of crimes, such as theft, forgery, and fraud involving use of the mail. Another small, but very important, group of employees is made up of the several hundred workers who service semiautomatic and automatic mail processing equipment. As the mechaniza tion of the Post Office Department continues, many more of these employees will be needed. The Post Office Department also employs a small number of engineers, accountants, and lawyers, and clerical and office workers, such as typists, stenographers, file clerks, and personnel assistants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To qualify for a job in the Post Office Depart ment, an applicant must be a citizen, pass a civil service examination, and meet the minimum age OCCUPATIONS IN GOVERNMENT requirements. Generally the minimum age limit for post office employment is 18. For high school graduates the minimum age limit is 16, except for jobs which may be considered hazardous, or may require operation of a motor vehicle. Usually the applicant must also live in the area served by the particular post office in which he would work if selected for appointment. In recent years, most applicants who have been appointed to post office jobs were high school graduates. However, formal education or special training, while highly recommended, is not required for most post office entry jobs. As in the case of other civil service examina tions, an honorably discharged war veteran has 5 extra points added to his passing grade and a disabled veteran receives 10 extra points. Vet erans with compensable disabilities are placed at the top of the list. Certain jobs (guards, elevator operators, laborers, janitors, etc.) are reserved for veterans. The names of applicants who pass an examina tion are placed on a register in the order of their scores. The appointing officer selects one of the top three available applicants to fill a job vacancy. Those not selected are put back on the list for consideration for the next job opening. Appoint ments to jobs are made without regard to an applicant’s race, color, sex, marital status, national origin, or religion. Postal employees, like all other Federal workers, are subject to an inves tigation of their moral character and loyalty. Before an applicant may be appointed, he must pass a physical examination. Specific physical requirements differ according to the nature of the work in the various jobs. In general, most of the work in the post office requires considerable physical stamina. An even more important quality is a good memory. Clerks, for example, must be able to memorize the streets and numbers which make up a district so that they can sort mail rapidly. Carriers have to keep records of changes of address. Both clerks and carriers must also remember many postal regu lations. Window clerks and carriers are expected to be pleasant and tactful in dealing with the public. Distribution clerks in the large post offices have no contact with the public. However, since they have tight deadlines and work in large groups at 819 close quarters, they should be able to get along well with their coworkers. All new postal employees must serve a proba tionary period of 1 year. An employee’s conduct and performance are observed, and, if warranted, he may be dismissed at any time during the probation. The amount of training given to a new employee varies considerably, depending on the size of the post office. On-the-job training is generally pro vided by the supervisor or an experienced em ployee. The new employee performs the simpler tasks of his job from the very first day. To become proficient in all of his work, however, takes much longer. The new clerk or carrier must spend many hours of practice sorting mail to get the necessary speed and accuracy. In addition, he must spend much of his own time memorizing postal regula tions, schemes, and routes. (A scheme is a group of places consisting of States, cities, zones, or streets and numbers arranged for the convenient delivery of mail.) Career postal employees are classified as regulars or substitutes. The great majority begin as substitutes. The positions of clerk, city car rier, special delivery messenger, mail handler, and positions in the vehicle service are initially filled by substitute appointment from the civil service register. Substitutes replace absent regu lar employees and also supplement the regular work force. There may not be more than one career substitute for every five regular employees. As vacancies occur in the regular work force, they are filled by converting substitutes to regu lars in order of seniority. The length of time served as a substitute depends on the size of the installation, economic conditions in the area, and other factors. Some jobs, even at the same salary level, may be considered more desirable than others because of the type of work performed, the hours of work, or for other reasons. When a vacancy occurs, it is posted and employees in the occupa tional group may submit “bids” (written requests for assignment to the vacancy). The preferred assignment is given to the qualified bidder with the longest service. A few nonsupervisory jobs at a higher salary level may also be bid on. For assignment to most higher level positions, however, merit, not seniority, is the controlling 820 factor. Qualifications for promotion may include experience, training or education, aptitude as measured by a written examination or perform ance test, work record, and personal character istics. (The last mentioned is particularly im portant in supervisory positions.) If the lead ing candidates for the job are about equally qualified, length of service determines which one is selected. Opportunities for advancement in the postal service are fairly limited. Most employees start as postal clerks and carriers and continue in those categories. However, they can receive preferred assignments or routes as their seniority increases. Opportunities for promotion to supervisory posi tions depend largely on the size of the post office. Promotion opportunities are better in large post offices, where each department has a supervisor, than in small post offices. One higher level position which offers an inter esting career and excellent opportunities for fur ther advancement is that of postal inspector. The openings are few, however, and the requirements are very exacting. Employment Outlook The Post Office Department will hire many thousands of young workers each year during the 1965-75 decade. Based on the experience of recent years, there should be many thousands of job op portunities in the postal service each year as a result of the need to replace employees who retire, die, or transfer to other employment. Deaths and retirements alone should provide about 15,000 job opportunities annually. A modest increase in total post office employ ment will result in some additional job opportuni ties during the years ahead. Most of this employ ment increase will occur in carrier jobs. As in the past, the volume of mail is expected to con tinue to grow rapidly, largely as a result of expanding population and increasing personal income and business activity. Employment, how ever, will grow at a much slower rate than in the past because of continuing modernization and mechanization of postal facilities and equipment which should greatly increase the volume of mail an individual employee can handle. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK In advanced stages of development and in actual use in a few post offices are a variety of electromechanical and electronic devices and con trols which receive, process, and dispatch mail at a considerable saving in postal clerk man power. Light-weight vehicles (mailsters) are also in use on a number of residential routes and additional ones are being purchased. The carrier provided with such a vehicle delivers parcel post as well as letter mail and paper mail. For every 10 routes so mechanized, one less parcel post carrier is required. Nevertheless, because of the large increase expected in mail volume in the next decade, employment should still continue to grow. Earnings and Working Conditions Almost all postal employees are paid under the Postal Field Service Compensation Act, under which three separate pay schedules are provided. One schedule determines the salaries of rural carriers and is based primarily on route length. Another schedule covers fourth-class postmasters, whose compensation is based on the annual receipts of their post offices. Salaries of all other postal field service employees are determined under the third schedule, the Postal Field Serv ice Schedule (PFS). The grade level of a posi tion under this schedule depends upon the duties and responsibilities and the knowledge, experience, or skill required. In all three pay schedules, employees receive periodic “step” increases, up to a specified maxi mum, if their job performance is satisfactory. A distribution of employees by PFS level, together with the entrance and maximum salary, as well as the amount of the periodic increases for each grade, is shown in the accompanying table. The average (median) annual salary of the almost 538,000 PFS employees in late 1965 was $6,378. Most of the city carriers and postal clerks are in PFS level 4. Most regular postal employees work an 8-hour day, 5 days per week. If a regular employee works more than 8 hours in a day or 40 hours in a week, he is paid at 1y2 times the regular rate for the extra hours worked. A substitute employee receives overtime pay if he works more than 40 hours in a week. 821 OCCUPATIONS IN GOVERNMENT Postal employees, both substitutes and regulars, receive the same vacation, sick leave, and other benefits available to Federal employees generally. They earn 13 days’ annual (vacation) leave dur ing each of their first 3 years of service, then 20 days each year until they have completed 15 years of service; and after that, 26 days of leave a year. In addition, they earn 13 days of paid sick leave a year. E m p lo y e e s 1 S c h e d u le d s a la r ie s 2 P o s ta l fie ld se r v ic e le v e l N um b er Percent 537,956 100.0 4 ,60 5 19,476 43,484 378,037 3 4,38 2 11,595 17,492 10, 888 7,945 3,894 2,134 1,345 1,130 834 390 206 75 16 13 15 0 .9 3 .6 8 .1 7 0 .3 6 .4 2 .2 3 .3 2 .0 1 .5 .7 .4 .3 .2 .2 .1 (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) E n tr a n c e P e r io d ic in cr ea se $4,086 4,424 4,780 5,181 5,5 3 6 5, 941 6,361 6,8 8 8 7, 449 8,1 1 0 8,9 6 1 9,9 1 4 10,956 12,077 13,349 14, 751 16,320 18,078 20,042 2 2 ,217 $135 145 161 171 186 197 212 228 248 275 306 337 378 420 461 513 570 632 699 777 M a x i m um T otal e m p lo y e es under PFS 1 ______________________ 2 _______________________ 3 _______________________ 4 _______________________ 5 _______________________ 6 _______________________ 7____________________ 8 _______________________ 9 _______________________ 10______________________ 11______________________ 12______________________ 13______________________ 14 _________________ 15______________________ 16______________________ 17______________________ 18 ______________________ 19______________________ 2 0 ______________________ $5, 571 6,0 1 9 6,5 5 1 7,0 6 2 7 ,5 8 2 8, 108 8, 481 8 ,9 4 0 9,6 8 1 10,585 11,715 12,947 14,358 15, 857 17, 498 * 9 ,368 2 1 ,4 5 0 23, 766 2 4 ,9 3 5 2 5 ,3 2 5 » A s o f J u ly 18, 1965. E ffe c tiv e O c t. 9 ,1 9 6 5 . a D o e s n o t in c lu d e p o stm a s te r s o f fo u r th -c la s s offices a n d r u r a l carriers. 4 L e s s t h a n 0.05 p e r c e n t. 2 N ote : B e c a u s e of r o u n d in g , s u m s of in d iv id u a l ite m s m a y n o t e q u a l 100. Source: U.S. P o s t Office D e p a r tm e n t. Other benefits include: Retirement and sur vivorship annuities, optional participation in low-cost group life insurance and health insur ance programs supported in part by the Federal Government, and compensation to employees injured in performance of duty. Postal workers are covered by the Civil Service system and enjoy a maximum of job security. The physical surroundings usually are pleasant. Most postal employees have frequent contact with the public or other employees, a work situation which most people enjoy. Prospective employees have the opportunity to choose between outdoor work (carrier) and indoor work (postal clerk). Some of the work requires considerable physi cal exertion such as walking, reaching, lifting, and carrying heavy sacks of mail. Some of the work is also of a routine nature. Most postal employees are members of unions. There are more than a dozen unions which repre sent postal employees. Where To G o for More Information Information on post office employment oppor tunities and civil service competitive examinations for postal jobs may be obtained from the local post office, the regional offices of the Civil Serv ice Commission, or State employment service offices. Mail Carriers (2d ed. D.O.T. 1-28.01) (3d ed. D.O.T. 233.388) Nature of Work The carrier—or mailman, as he is known to most people—is responsible for delivering and collecting mail in a specific area. Most of his time is spent outdoors where he has frequent contact with the people on his route. Some city carriers (usually new men) may be assigned only to collect mail from street letter boxes and from office building mail chutes. Most of the work of this group of carriers is done in the evening. The great majority of carriers, however, work during the day, delivering as well as collecting mail. The carrier begins his work very early in the morning. He spends a couple of hours at the post office, where he arranges the mail in the order in which it will be delivered. To do this sorting, he uses a “case,” which is an upright box with compartments labeled with names of streets, house numbers, or buildings. (Rural carriers sort—or “case”—the mail by name of patrons and rural box number rather than by street and number.) He readdresses mail to be forwarded and marks the mail of persons who have moved without leav ing forwarding addresses to show how it should be handled. He also prepares and places in his route case reminders for special mail, such as insured mail which requires a signature by the person receiving the mail. He signs receipts for postage due and c.o.d. mail. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 822 C o u rtesy of th e U .S . P o st Office D ep a rtm e n t M ail carriers sort letters before making deliveries. When the mail has been arranged, it is assembled into bundles numbered in the order of delivery. The residential foot carrier’s mail is generally too heavy to be carried by him all at one time. (Thirty-five pounds is the maximum to be carried.) He therefore, makes up larger bundles of mail, called “relays” which are trans ported by other carriers in trucks and placed in storage (relay) boxes at intervals along the route. The carrier starts out on his route with the mail in a large leather bag which is carried over his shoulder or in a mail cart. The bag or cart will contain mail to be delivered on the first sec tion of his route. When he reaches the first relay box, his bag is empty, or nearly so, and he refills it with the bundles in the relay box containing the mail for the next section of his route. In some cities, a carrier on an outlying residen tial route may use a light, three-wheeled motor vehicle called a “mailster” to deliver mail. Such a carrier does not make up relays, but rather loads the vehicle with the mail for his entire route. He also takes the parcel post mail for his route and delivers it together with the letter and paper mail. On his route, the carrier goes from door to door, placing ordinary mail in boxes or through door slots. Mail is delivered throughout office buildings served by elevators; in apartment houses, the mail usually is deposited in the boxes near the front entrance. The carrier collects charges on postage-due and c.o.d. mail and obtains receipts for registered and certain insured mail. When a required signature cannot be obtained for mail such as an insured parcel, the carrier leaves a notice that tells where the parcel is being held. The carrier brings back to the post office letters left in the mail box for mailing. He also collects mail from street letter boxes. When the carrier returns to the post office after completing his route, he “faces” the mail he has brought back for cancellation (i.e., arranges letters so that the stamps are all in the same direction). He also turns in the money and receipts which he collected. The residential city carrier covers his route once during the day. The carrier in the down town business district, covering a more highly concentrated area, makes a number of trips over his route during the course of the day. Where letter and paper mail is delivered by foot carriers, parcel post is delivered separately by other carriers who drive trucks. Parcel post is sorted by postal clerks and put into sacks. Each sack has a parcel post carrier’s route number and another number indicating the order of deliv ery within the route. The parcel post carrier loads his truck, arranging the sacks in the order of delivery, and proceeds along his route which covers about the same area as 8 to 10 foot carrier routes combined. He also collects mail of all types from street letter boxes. A substitute carrier may have a combination of duties. For example, he may deliver mail on foot during part of the day and then drive a truck in the evening, making collections from street letter boxes. The rural carrier delivers mail by motor vehicle along routes primarily outside city limits. He places the mail in mail boxes set up on posts by the roadside and collects the letters left in the 823 OCCUPATIONS IN GOVERNMENT boxes for mailing. In addition, he sells stamps and money orders and accepts parcel post, letters, and packages to be registered or insured. All carriers must be able to answer questions about postal regulations and service and provide change of address cards and other postal forms when requested. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To be considered for a carrier position, an applicant must be a citizen, meet the minimum age requirements, and pass a civil service exami nation. To be eligible for employment, most post offices require carrier applicants to be at least 18 years of age and pass a road test. The same written civil service examination is given to applicants interested in either city carrier or postal clerk jobs. The written test consists of three parts. The longest part is a test of general intelligence, including questions on simple arith metic, spelling, vocabulary, and reading com prehension. Another part tests the applicant’s reading accuracy by requiring him to compare addresses arranged in pairs and to indicate whether they are the same or different. The third part tests the applicant’s ability to follow instruc tions carefully in making changes on a mailing scheme and in routing mail. Sample questions are sent to applicants with their notices of admis sion to the written tests. Persons being considered for appointment as carriers are given a road test in which they must demonstrate their ability to handle, under vari ous driving conditions, vehicles of the type and size they may be required to operate as carriers. At the time of appointment, they must have a valid driver’s license. Applicants must pass a rigorous physical exam ination to determine whether they are able to stand the physical exertion required to perform the jobs. They must be able to stand for long periods of time, walk considerable distances, and handle heavy sacks of mail. Carriers must weigli at least 125 pounds. The minimum weight requirements may be waived for veterans, and for those who can pass a strength test consisting of lifting a sack weighing 80 pounds to their shoulders. In addition to good health and physical stam ina, a carrier should have a good memory. He relies on his memory in arranging the mail on his route in the proper order for delivery. He must also memorize many postal rules and regu lations. Other desirable qualities for a carrier are a pleasant manner and a neat appearance. City carriers begin as substitutes, becoming regulars in order of seniority as vacancies occur. New carriers are taught the procedures for casing mail. Substitute city carriers may be assigned to postal clerk duties and may sometimes be required to pass examinations on schemes of city “primary distribution” (first sorting by destination). About once a year, the carrier is checked on howwell he performs his job. Promotional opportunities for carriers are limited. Some carriers in city delivery service may advance to special nonsupervisory jobs such as carrier-technician, or to jobs as carrier foreman and route examiner. Such employees, however, constitute only a small percentage of the number of city carriers. Most carriers, therefore, can only look forward to preferred routes as their seniority increases. Employment Outlook There will be many thousands of opportunities each year during the remainder of the 1960’s and in the longer run for young men to become carriers. Based on the experience of recent years, many thousands will be hired each year as replacements for carriers w-ho leave the service as a result of transfer to other work, retirement, or death. Deaths and retirements alone should provide about 5,000 job opportunities annually. The total number of carrier jobs is also expected to increase substantially. As in the past, the number of city carriers will increase as population continues to grow and to spread out into suburban areas. Such innova tions as “mailsters” probably will slowr down the rate of employment growth. Rural carrier employment is expected to remain relatively unchanged in future years, as it has for many years in the past. Rural routes near large cities are converted to city routes as the suburbs continue to spread. On the other hand, new rural routes are established to provide service in OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 824 areas where fourth-class post offices are discon tinued. In recent years, vacancies have averaged about 1,700 annually. Earnings and Working Conditions Almost all city carriers begin as substitutes and receive $2.57 an hour. If their work is satisfac tory, they receive an increase of 8 or 9 cents an hour each year for the first 6 years, and an increase of 8 or 9 cents an hour every 3 years thereafter, up to a maximum of $3.50 an hour. Regular city car riers are paid on an annual basis, beginning at $5,181 and increasing each year by $171 for the first 6 years, and by $171 every 3 years there after, up to a maximum of $7,062 after 21 years of service. When a substitute city carrier receives a regu lar appointment, he gets credit for his service as a substitute. For example, a substitute with 2 years of career service who is appointed to a regu lar position would be paid at the annual rate of $5,523. All city carriers receive an allowance for the postal uniforms they are required to wear. Rural carriers are paid a salary based on a com bination of fixed annual compensation and the number of miles in their routes. In addition, they receive a maintenance allowance of 12 cents a mile for the use of their automobiles. A carrier with a 61-mile route (the average route length in 1965) would receive $5,656 a year in his first year and $6,682 in his seventh year. The allow ance for the use of his automobile would give him an additional $2,225.28. A substitute rural carrier receives a base pay for the days he works, and, in addition, receives the same mileage compensation and automobile maintenance allowance as the regular carrier whose route he is covering. The regular city carrier usually works an 8-hour day, 5 days per week. If he works more than 8 hours a day or 40 hours a week, he is paid at iy 2 times his regular rate for the extra hours worked. A substitute city carrier receives overtime pay if he works more than 40 hours a week. , Both regular and substitute city carriers receive 10 percent ad ditional pay for work between the hours of 6 p.m. and 6 a.m. Rural carriers work a 6-day week. Most carriers begin work very early in the morning. In some cities, carriers with routes in the business district report to the post office at 6 a.m. The working conditions of carriers vary considerably depending upon the time of year and the part of the country in which they work. They work outdoors in the pleasant spring and fall weather, as well as under the hot summer sun and in the snow and ice of winter. The carrier must cover his route within certain time limits. Otherwise, he is on his own while out delivering the mail and has the opportunity of meeting different people along his route. Most carriers have to do a great deal of walk ing with a mail bag slung o v er the sh o u ld er. Even the carriers who drive vehicles have to do con siderable walking and lift heavy sacks of parcel post while loading their vehicles. They may also carry heavy packages in making deliveries to business establishments or homes. Postal Clerks (2d ed. D.O.T. 1-27.20) (3d ed. D.O.T. 232.368) Nature of Work The great majority of post office clerks work behind the scenes and are never seen by the public. They are the distribution clerks in the large city post offices who sort incoming and out going mail and prepare it for dispatching. Other clerks deal directly with the public at windows in the lobbies of post office buildings, selling stamps and money orders and providing other services. (In smaller post offices, the same clerk does both types of work.) Every postal clerk, whether a distribution clerk or a window clerk, must be able to sort mail. New substitute clerks may be assigned to carrier duties. The mail that has been collected by the carriers is brought into the post office workroom and dumped on long tables. Here the first rough separation of the mail into parcel post, paper 825 OCCUPATIONS IN GOVERNMENT mail, and letter mail takes place, usually per formed by new distribution clerks (and some times by mail handlers). Parcel post and paper mail are put into separate containers. The let ter mail which remains on the table is “faced” (stamps down and facing the same direction) and fed into canceling machines which print over the stamps the date and time (a.m. or p.m.), and the city and State in which the post office is located. (Many of the larger post offices have installed new canceling machines which make it unnecessary to face the letters because the ma chines can “find” and cancel the stamp, wherever it is.) Parcel post and paper mail are canceled by hand. After the stamps have been canceled, the mail is taken to different sections where other clerks begin a series of sortings according to destination. Clerks who work on letter mail throw the letters into a case (an upright box with labeled compartments). For a “primary distribution” (first sorting by destination), the case usually has one or two compartments for local mail, a number of compartments for groups of distant States, a compartment for each of the nearby States, one for each of the largest cities in the country, etc. The primary distribution is followed by one or more “secondary” distributions in which the mail from each compartment in the primary case is sorted in greater detail. For example, clerks will gather the local mail from the appropriate compartment in each primary case and combine it with the local mail which has come in from outside the city to be sorted in a secondary case. The clerks who sort this mail have to be familiar with every street in the city and know the streets and street numbers that are included in each postal zone, branch, or station. Mail is sometimes further separated by sections within postal zones so that when it arrives at a neighborhood post office it is almost ready for immediate delivery by carriers. Parcel post is sorted in the same way as letter mail, by separating it into ever finer groupings. However, to sort parcels, clerks use chutes, con veyors, slides, tables, and bags or other con tainers instead of letter cases. Some distribution clerks separate mail while traveling in trains or busses. Other clerks, known C o u rtesy of th e U .S . P o st Office D ep a rtm e n t Postal clerk feeds letters into canceling machine. as transfer clerks, arrange for mail to be moved to and from trains promptly and at the lowest possible cost. Distribution clerk (machines) is a relatively new post office occupation. Clerks in this occupa tion are employed in some of the large post offices and operate electronic machines that distribute mail automatically. For example, a clerk using an electronic sorting machine merely pushes buttons to direct letters automatically to the proper com partments. These clerks must know distribution schemes, as do the clerks who sort mail by hand. Distribution clerks have to work quickly because mail must be delivered as speedily as possible. Accuracy is also most important because placing a letter in the wrong compartment of a case will result in delayed delivery. The clerks who work at public windows in the lobby of the post office building, in addition to selling stamps, provide a variety of other serv ices. In accepting material for mailing, window clerks weigh letters and parcels and determine the amount of postage required. They check 826 packages and envelopes to see if their sizes, shapes, and condition are acceptable. They reg ister and insure mail and sell the postage or collect the charges required for the service. Window clerks also sell and cash money orders, distribute general delivery mail and parcels and other undeliverable mail being held at the post office, accept deposits in postal savings accounts, and rent post office boxes. They also answer ques tions on rates, mailing restrictions, and other postal matters. Occasionally, a window clerk will help someone file a claim for mail that has been damaged. In the larger post offices, a window clerk will perform only one or two of these services. Thus, in these offices there are such clerks as registry, stamp, and money order clerks. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK They practice on their own time to achieve speed and accuracy. All postal clerks are required peri odically to pass scheme examinations on the work for which they are responsible. Promotional opportunities for postal clerks are limited. In the larger post offices, there are some special postal clerk jobs at a higher level, as well as some scheme examiner jobs, mail dispatch expediter jobs, and foreman jobs. Compared with the large number of postal clerk jobs, these “higher level” jobs are relatively few. Most postal clerks, therefore, do not advance to a higher level. However, as their seniority increases, they may receive preferred assignments such as the day shift, or a window clerk job. Employment Outlook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Some of the requirements for entry as a postal clerk are the same as for any post office job and are discussed earlier in this chapter. The written civil service examination and the physical require ments are the same as for carrier applicants and are discussed on page 823. A special type of examination, including a machine aptitude test, is given to applicants for the position of distri bution clerk (machines). Good health and a good memory are essential for those who want to be postal clerks. The work requires much stretching and lifting, walking and standing, and throwing of packages of mail as well as handling of heavy sacks of mail. Clerks have to memorize distribution schemes and many postal rules and regulations. They also need good eye-hand coordination and the ability to read rapidly. The distribution clerk works closely with other clerks, frequently under the tension and strain of meeting mailing deadlines and should, there fore, be even-tempered. The window clerk is in constant contact with the public and consider able tact may be required in his replies to questions and complaints. Most postal clerks begin as substitutes and become regulars in order of seniority as vacancies occur. New clerks receive brief instructions in their duties. They are given a primary scheme to learn and, when they have mastered this, they are given one or two secondary schemes to learn. There will be many thousands of job openings for postal clerks through the mid-1970’s. Most of these openings will result from the need to replace clerks who leave the service because of transfers to other work, retirements, or death. Deaths and retirements alone should provide about 6,000 job opportunities annually. Some additional job op portunities will result from an expected slight increase in total postal clerk employment. With the anticipated increase in population, business activity, and personal income, mail vol ume will grow substantially. Post offices will be needed in the new communities. The increased volume of mail and the new post offices estab lished will require more postal clerks. However, because of technological develop ments already introduced and others on the hori zon, employment is expected to grow at a much slower rate than the volume of mail. As a result of these developments, the amount of mail a clerk can handle will increase and postal clerk employ ment will rise at a slower rate than it has in the past. Earnings and Working Conditions Most postal clerks are at the same grade level as city carriers and the earnings information for clerks is, therefore, the same as that presented on page 824. Clerks working on the night shift receive 10 percent additional pay. Postal clerks who separate mail while traveling in trains or 827 OCCUPATIONS IN GOVERNMENT buses receive higher salaries than clerks in large post offices, and the clerks in large post offices receive higher salaries than those in the small (third-class) post offices. The working conditions of post office clerks differ according to the specific work assignment and the amount and kind of laborsaving machin ery in the particular post office. Generally, distri bution clerks work in close contact with each other and often there is a spirit of friendliness and cooperation within a group. Much of the work is routine, however, and may become bor ing unless the clerk accepts the challenge of im proving his speed and accuracy. The work is also physically demanding. The clerk has to do con siderable walking, throwing, and reaching. He is on his feet much of the time and may have to handle heavy sacks of mail. The work of the window clerk requires con siderably less physical exertion. It is usually more varied and the window clerk also has the con stant contact with the public to keep him inter ested. Furthermore, very few window clerks work at night.. For these reasons, the job of the window clerk is generally regarded as a preferred assignment. C o u rtesy of th e U .S . P o st Office D e p a rtm e n t Typical mail sorting scene at large post office. State and Local Governments State and local governments provide a very large and growing source of job opportunities in many different occupational fields. In 1964, over 7 million (full- and part-time) workers were em ployed in State and local government agencies, an increase of 57 percent over 1954. Three-fourths (5.6 million) of these workers were with units of local governments, such as counties, municipali ties, towns, school districts, or special districts. The remainder were employed ih State govern ment agencies. More than 3 million employees, or half of all State and local government workers, were em ployed in public schools, colleges, or other educa tional services in October 1964. The less densely populated States had the highest proportions of employees in educational services. In addition to nearly 2 million classroom teachers (the largest single occupation in the field of education), school systems also employ ad ministrative personnel, librarians, guidance coun selors, nurses, dietitians, clerks, and maintenance workers. Eighty percent of employment in the field of education is in elementary and secondary schools, which are largely administered by local governments. State employment in education is concentrated chiefly in institutions of higher learning. The next two largest fields of State and local government employment in 1964 were in health and hospital, and highway work. The 789,000 persons employed in health and hospital work included physicians, nurses, medical laboratory technicians, and hospital attendants. More than 560,000 workers were employed in highway activi ties, such as construction and maintenance of roads, highways, city streets, toll turnpikes, bridges, and tunnels. Among these employees were civil engineers, surveyors, operators of construc tion machinery and equipment, truckdrivers, concrete finishers, carpenters, and construction laborers. In 1964, more than 460,000 workers were em ployed in general and financial control activities— 828 most of them at the local level. General and fi nancial control functions include the activities of chief executives and their staffs and legislative bodies; the administration of justice; tax enforce ment and other financial work; and general ad ministrative work. These functions require the services of individuals such as lawyers, judges, and other court officials, city managers, property assessors, budget analysts, stenographers, and clerks. Protective services, such as those provided by police and fire departments, was another large field of State and local government employment. There were 378,000 people employed in police work in 1964, principally by local governments. Employment in police work includes administra tive, clerical, and custodial personnel, as well as uniformed and plainclothes policemen. All of the 230,000 firemen were employed by local gov ernments, and about a third of these were parttime employees. Other State and local government employees were engaged in a wide variety of fields—local utilities (such as water, electricity, transporta tion, and gas supply systems); natural resources; public welfare; parks and recreation; sanitation; correction; local libraries; sewage disposal; and housing and urban renewal. These activities re quire workers in many different occupations such as economist, electrical engineer, electrician, pipefitter, clerk, forester, and busdriver. Clerical, administrative, maintenance, and custodial workers constitute a significant pro portion of all employees in many areas of gov ernment activity. Among the more important groups of workers engaged in these occupations are clerk-typists, stenographers, secretaries, office managers, fiscal and budget administra tors, bookkeepers, accountants, carpenters, paint ers, plumbers, guards, and janitors. (Detailed discussions of professional, technical, mechanical, and other occupations in State and local govern ments are given elsewhere in the Handbook, in the sections covering the individual occupations.) State and local government employment oppor tunities are distributed among the States, roughly in proportion to their population. For example, California, New York, Illinois, Texas, Ohio, and Pennsylvania, which have more than 40 percent of the Nation’s population, also employ more OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK than 40 percent of the State and local govern ment work force. Employment Trends and Outlook The long-range employment trend in State and local governments has been steadily upward. (See chart 43.) Most of this growth has occurred because of the need to provide services for in creasing numbers of younger and older persons, the population movement from rural to urban areas, the increasing concentration of population in suburban areas, the expansion in school systems, and the growth of cities. City development has required more street and highway facilities; police and fire protection; and public health, sanitation, welfare, and other services. An expanding econ omy and increasing personal income have gener ated demands for improved education, housing, and hospital and other services. Three-fifths of the total increase in State and local government employment in the 1954-64 decade was due to increased employment of teachers and other educational personnel. Employ ment in this field increased by 76 percent—from nearly 2 million to over 3!/2 million employees, principally at the local level. Less rapid, but still substantial, employment gains at the State and local level resulted from expansion in health and hospital services, highway programs, and protec tive (police and fire) services. Rapid growth in State and local government employment is expected to continue during the 1965-75 decade, because the high birth rate and extensive migration into the cities and out to the suburbs are expected to persist. Demand for services will also be stimulated by expected changes in the age composition of the population. Huge increases are expected among the young and the elderly—groups which have the largest needs for State and local services. Increased demand for additional services will be supplemented by efforts to obtain improve ments in existing services—for example, for lesscrowded schools; more school counseling person nel; better training facilities for all; improved public transportation systems; more urban re newal; increased police protection; better meas ures to guard against air and water pollution, soil contamination, and unsafe drugs; and expanded hospital facilities for the mentally retarded, emo tionally disturbed, and physically handicapped. 829 OCCUPATIONS IN GOVERNMENT CHART 43 TREND IN STATE AND LO CA L GOVERNMENT E M P L O Y M E N T ........... Millions of employees Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of State and local government workers depend primarily on the employee’s occupation. Information on salary rates for a specific occupa tion can be obtained from the appropriate agencies in each State or locality. The average earnings of State and local gov ernment employees also vary from one govern ment function to another. Average monthly earnings in October 1964 for full-time employees engaged in various functions were as follows: Function Average monthly earnings of fu ll-tim e em p lo yee s 1 All functions___________________________ Education____________________________________ Local schools_____________________________ Instructional personnel______________ Other____ v_______________________ Institutions of higher education_____________ Instructional personnel________________ Other________________________________ Other education___________________________ New or recently expanded Federal-State pro grams in education, vocational training, medicine, and other fields will greatly increase the require ments of local and State governments for pro fessional, administrative, and technical personnel, such as engineers, scientists, social workers, coun selors, teachers, doctors, and librarians. In addition to job opportunities resulting from the expected overall growth in State and local government employment, large numbers of em ployees will be needed to replace workers who are promoted, transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone will probably result in the need for more than 100,000 new workers annually during the next decade. Most positions in State and local governments will be filled by permanent residents of the State and locality where they seek employment. Often, however, it is necessary for State and local gov ernments to recruit outside their areas if short ages of particular skills exist in their areas. Functions other than education_________________ Highways_________________________________ Public welfare_____________________________ Hospitals_________________________________ Health____________________________________ Police protection__________________________ Local fire protection_______________________ Sewerage_________________________________ Sanitation other than sewerage_____________ Local parks and recreation_________________ Natural resources_________________________ Housing and urban renewal________________ Airports___________________________ Water transport and terminals______________ Correction________________________________ Local libraries_________________________ Employment security administration-----Financial administration....... .......................... General control___________________________ Local utilities_____________________________ Water supply_________________________ Electric power________________________ Transit_______________________________ Gas supply___________________________ State liquor stores_________________________ Other and unallocable_____________________ $473 518 508 574 328 584 824 428 473 433 419 395 342 462 506 534 448 404 401 454 469 4 523 462 360 493 1 Because a considerable number of educational employees are paid on a 9- or 10-month school term basis, average earnings for this group for a single month, such as October, cannot be used directly to estimate comparative annual earnings of educational personnel in relation to those of other employ ees. The lower average earnings for hospitals reflect cash compensation only and do not include the value of meals, lodgings, or other payments-inkind. S o u r c e : State Distribution of Public Employment in 1964, U.S. Bureau of the Census. 427 463 508 441 537 585 457 399 453 830 Average monthly earnings of full-time State and local government workers in the United States in October 1964 ranged from $314 in Mississippi to $714 in Alaska. A majority of State and local government positions are filled through some type of formal civil service test, and personnel are hired and promoted on the basis of merit. In some areas, broad groups of employees, such as teachers, firemen, and policemen have separate civil serv ice coverage which applies only to their specific groups. More than half of all State and local govern ment employees are covered by State-adminis tered retirement systems; most of the remainder are covered either by locally administered sys tems or by the Federal old-age and survivors and disability insurance program. Nearly all teachers and full-time local policemen and fire men are covered by some kind of retirement pro visions. In addition, approximately two-thirds of the public school teachers and about a third OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK of the policemen and firemen are also under the Federal old-age and survivors and disability in surance program. Most State and local government employees work a 40-hour week; overtime pay or compensa tory time benefits are often granted for hours of work in excess of the standard workweek. Where To G o for More Information People interested in working for State or local government agencies should seek information about job openings, salary rates, and how to apply for employment at the appropriate agencies in the State, county, or city. Local school boards, city clerks, school and college counselors or placement offices, and local offices of State employment services will also have, or can tell applicants where to get, information. General information on administrative careers in government may be obtained from : American Society for Public Administration, 1329 18th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. ARMED FORCES When planning their future careers, young men must take into account their military service obligation. By knowing the choices available for fulfillment of this obligation, they can better fit their service period into their occupational plans. In many instances, the service activities provide valuable vocational training which is helpful in obtaining civilian jobs later on. The Armed Forces also offer many opportunities to qualified young men and young women for life time service careers in many occupations. For the young man who is a conscientious objector to combatant and noncombatant military service, there are several areas in which he can employ his service time. State and local Selective Service Boards have a list of acceptable areas of work, and of groups sponsoring such projects. Among the sponsoring groups are the Friends Service Committee, the Church of the Brethren, and the Mennonites. At the present time, the Armed Forces are maintained through voluntary enlistment, sup plemented by a Selective Service System which drafts young men between the ages of 1 8 ^ and 26. A young man may enlist in any one of a variety of programs involving different combina tions of active service and reserve duty; or he may wait to be drafted for a 2-year period of active duty, followed by 4 years in the reserves. These enlistment choices and the draft are subject to change at any time by Congressional action. The alternative choices described here in a general way serve only to illustrate a few possibilities. Detailed up-to-date information can be obtained from local Armed Forces Recruit ing Stations or from such publications as Your Life Plans and the Armed Forces, and the High School News Service Report. These publications are available at high schools, colleges, and State employment service offices. The Reserve Forces Act of 1955 provided addi tional choices for fulfilling military obligations. One of these important new choices allows a young man to fulfill his military obligation by enlisting in the reserves for 8 years, 6 months of which is spent in active duty training. This enables him to complete his active military serv ice in a 6-month period just after high school, before he enters college or starts to work. If a young man wants to go directly to college, he can remain in a deferred status by qualifying for student deferment or, upon entering college, by enrolling in ROTC or certain other officer training programs. A young man who wants to enter an industry training program directly from high school may qualify for apprentice deferment and complete apprentice training before entering military service. About half of all enlisted jobs in the Armed Forces require training in a skilled trade or a technical specialty. It is possible for a young man, during his military service, to receive train ing in electronics, aircraft maintenance, metal working, or other skilled work. (See chart 44.) Such work can often be utilized later in civilian employment. To receive this kind of training, it is usually necessary to enlist for more than 2 years. In addition to specific on-the-job training, the Armed Forces provide military personnel with a wide choice of voluntary off-duty academic and technical training programs. Military personnel may enroll in (1) the U.S. Armed Forces Insti tute, (2) the Resident Center Program, (3) the Group Study Program, or (4) the Military Extension Correspondence Course Program. USAFI offers approximately 200 correspondence courses ranging from elementary school through 2 years of college level. In addition, approxi mately 6,000 courses are offered by colleges and universities under contract with USAFI. In the Resident Center Program, civilian institutions offer courses leading to high school diplomas and college degrees which may be taken either on the 831 832 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK CHART 44 TYPES OF W O R K PERFO RM ED BY ENLISTED MEN IN THE ARM ED FO R C ES, JU N E 3 0 , 1964 ] / . . . . Electrical/Mechanical equipment repairmen - automotive, aircraft mechanics, etc. Administrative specialists and clerks - data processing, accountants, supply clerks, etc. Service and supply handlers - Food service, motor transport, etc. Infantry, guncrew, and allied specialists - infantry, artillery, combat engineers, armor, combat aircrews, etc. Electronic equipment repairmen - radio, radar, sonar, missile, fire control systems, etc. Communications and intelligence specialists ■radio, radar and sonar operators, air traffic controllers, and military intelligence Craftsmen - printing, metal working, construction, etc. Medical and dental technical specialists - pharmacists. X-ray technicians, dental technicians, etc. Other technical and allied specialists - photographers, draftsmen, musicians, meterologists, etc. military installation or on a nearby campus. The Group Study Program is offered on military in stallations where local civilian classes are not available. The Military Extension Correspond ence Course Program provides technical courses in military specialties which are designed to ad vance career capabilities. In 1964, more than 1,500,000 enrollments were recorded in these four programs. General information on the occupations in the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard may be obtained from their respective recruiting stations. Career fields in the Army, Air Force, and Navy are listed in this chapter together with further sources of information. In September 1964, Armed Forces military personnel were distributed among the various services as follows: Air Force, 854,000; Army, 973,000; Navy, 670,000; Marine Corps, 190,000; and Coast Guard, 32,000. Arm y The Army has divided its occupations into approximately 55 occupational career fields classified into 10 occupational areas, which are explained in the U.S. Army Handbook, Army Occupations And You, Advertising and Publicity Division, U.S. Army Recruiting Command, Fort Monroe, Va., revised edition, 1962. Briefs on the career fields describe job organization, duties and responsibilities, work environment, qualifications, training given, advancement, and related civilian jobs. Each brief contains a job progression chart showing normal lines of advancement and indi cating areas of work in the particular career field. The handbook contains additional sections on requirements for enlistment, pay scale and allow ances, educational opportunities in the Army, opportunities for commissioned and warrant officers, opportunities for women in the Army, aptitude areas, and an index to related civilian jobs. The handbook is available in high schools, State Employment Service offices, and Army recruiting stations. Information on jobs in each career field is given in greater detail in the Man ual of Enlisted Military Occupational Special ties, AR 611-201. Although intended for military use, this book is useful to civilians as well, because of its thorough examination of each job specialty. The manual is available at all Army recruiting stations, posts, and installations. A ir Force The Air Force has published a manual for vocational guidance counselors and Air Force personnel officers called the Occupational Hand book of the United States A ir Force (Headquar ters, U.S. Air Force, The Pentagon, Washington, D.C. 20330, 1964). This handbook contains descriptions of each of the 45 airmen career fields. Each brief includes a statement of the scope of the particular career field and an organizational chart which shows the relationship between the various jobs and indicates the paths of advancement. For the various jobs in a career field, the brief gives a description of duties and responsibilities, qualifications and preparation, training given, and related civilian jobs. The handbook also has special sections on pay rates, opportunities for a commission, women in the Air Force, and reserve components. In addition, there is a valu able school subject index to airmen career fields. This publication is available in high schools, col OCCUPATIONS IN GOVERNMENT leges, public libraries, State Employment Service offices, and Air Force recruiting stations. Navy The many different kinds of occupations found in the Navy are described in the UJS. Navy Occupational Handbook (Bureau of Naval Per sonnel, Washington, D.C. 20350, 1963). This handbook contains 65 vocational information statements on Navy occupations, classified into 9 major groups. Each brief explains the purpose of 833 the job, duties and responsibilities, work assign ments, qualifications and preparation, training given, lines of advancement, and related naval or civilian jobs. Promotions, pay rates, retirement provisions, and other aspects of careers in the Navy are explained in the introduction. Included in the handbook are sections on women in the Navy, commissioned officers, the Naval Reserve, and the Submarine Service. This publication is available in all high schools, colleges, public libraries, State Employment Service offices, and the Navy recruiting stations. Technical Appendix This appendix is designed for readers who wish more information on the procedures followed in developing the conclusions on employment outlook than is presented in the preceding reports on individual occupations and in dustries. Also included in this appendix is a brief ex planation of how the D.O.T. numbers (from the D i c t i o n a r y o f O c c u p a t i o n a l T i t l e s prepared by the Bureau of Employment Security of the U.S. Department of Labor) given in the occupational reports fit into the D i c t i o n a r y ’s occupational classification system. Employment Outlook Conclusions The sections on employment outlook in the occupa tional reports present conclusions based not only on information compiled from many sources but also on extensive economic and statistical analyses. Although the sources used and the methods of analysis differed among occupations and industries, because of differences in the factors influencing supply and demand, the same general pattern of research was followed in all of the outlook studies. The starting point in most studies was an analysis of past and prospective population trends, including the changes expected in population of school and college age, in numbers of older people, in employment of women, and in the concentration of population in urban and suburban areas. In fields such as teaching, the health professions, and many personal services, population factors have a direct and obvious influence on employ ment opportunities. They are also of great importance in many industries—for example, residential construction, baking, telephone communications, apparel, and retail trade. Many factors besides the size and composition of the population may affect the volume of business and em ployment in a given industry. Consumer purchasing patterns change with shifts in preference from one type of product to another, and with the development of new products which cut into the market for old ones. A general rise in income levels can create new markets for more expensive items. Technological developments not only bring changes in the raw materials and equipment needed in production, but they also influence the size of the required work force and the kinds of occupations and skills needed. Government policies, such as the size of the defense and space programs, and expenditures for research and development, also bring about changes in the types of occupations required. 834 In studying the outlook in each industry, the factors having the greatest influence were analyzed and projec tions were made of demand for the industry’s products or services. These projections were then translated into estimates of the numbers and kinds of workers required to produce the indicated amounts of products or services —in view of the relative numbers currently employed in different occupations, productivity trends, possible fur ther reductions in the workweek, and other factors. Past trends in employment were also given much weight in arriving at the conclusions as to probable future trends. To assist in carrying through this analysis and ensure that the assumptions made in the different studies were consistent, overall projections of the economy to 1975 were developed. This general analytical framework in cluded projections to 1970 and 1975 of the population, labor force, gross national product, average hours of work, employment in major industries, and related eco nomic measures. In all studies of separate occupations and industries, the employment projections were tied in with those derived from the projections of the entire economy, and assumed a relatively full-employment economy.1 The basic data on population and labor force trends, used for the overall employment projections and for the studies of individual occupations and industries, are from the decennial Censuses of Population, and from the monthly labor force surveys conducted by the Bu reau of the Census for the Bureau of Labor Statistics.2 Data were also drawn from the Censuses of Manufac tures and Business conducted by the Census Bureau. It should be noted that Census of Population data were used for most of the charts on occupations in this H a n d b o o k since decennial censuses provide the only long-term trend data available on employment in most occupations. The 1960 Census of Population data were also used in charts designed to show the comparative size of occupations.3 However, in the text and in a 1 Some of the economic projections derived in these studies by the Bureau of Labor S tatistics have been published in the Monthly Labor R eview ; March 1965, pp. 279—284, “Manpower Needs by Industry to 1975” and April 1965, pp. 378—383. “Manpower Needs to 1975, Part II, Detailed Projections of Occupational Requirements in the N ext Decade”. 3 Special Labor Force Report No. 49, “Labor Force Projection for 1970-80” ; available on request as long as the supply lasts from the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor S tatistics. W ashington, D.C. 20210. 3 U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, U.S. Summary-Detailed Characteristics, table 201, U.S. Census of Population 1960. PC (1) ID, Superintendent of Documents, W ashington, D.C. 20402, price $2.50. 835 TECHNICAL APPENDIX other occupations or because of retirement or death) than are needed to staff new positions created by growth of the field. Rarely do occupations grow fast enough so that the reverse is true. Even occupations which are declining in size may offer employment opportunities to many young people. In estimating the number of openings likely to arise in an occupation, use has been made of Bureau of Labor Statistics studies of occupational mobility among se lected groups of workers, and of tables of working life, also developed by the Bureau.® The tables, which are similar to the actuarial tables of life expectancy used by insurance companies, provide a basis for assess ing future rates of replacements resulting from deaths and retirements, in turn affected by differences in sex and average age of the workers in various occupations. In many occupations, for example, where men comprise the great majority of workers, the rate of replacement for death and for retirement is generally between 1 and 4 percent. The rate is usually somewhat higher in women’s occupations, however, because so many women leave paid employment to get married and assume fam ily responsibilities; the replacement rate among school teachers is at least 8 percent a year. The types of information mentioned so far in this section all relate to the demand for workers. In order to appraise the prospective employment opportunities in an occupation, it is also important to have information on the probable future supply of personnel. The statis tics on high school and college enrollments and gradua tions compiled by the U.S. Office of Education are the chief source of information on the potential supply of personnel in the professions and other occupations re quiring extensive formal education. Data on numbers of apprentices from the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training provide some information on new entrants into skilled trades. Many of the statistical sources and analytical ap proaches referred to above have been developed only within comparatively recent years. The reader should bear in mind that economic forecasting is still in an early stage of development and that it is, at best, dif ficult and uncertain. It is necessary to keep in mind also the basic assumptions underlying the forecasts (enumerated on page 21). The Bureau believes that, within this general framework of assumption, the basic trends affecting employment can be discerned with suf ficient accuracy to meet the needs of young people preparing for careers. limited number of charts, employment for individual occupations was estimated for 1964 or early 1965. These more recent estimates were made possible by utilizing information from a variety of sources such as licensing agencies, trade unions, professional associations, and special surveys. Equally essential to the studies of employment trends in major industries were the statistics on employment in nonagricultural establishments, compiled by the Bu reau of Labor Statistics. These estimates provide monthly data on employment, hours of work, earnings, and labor turnover, based on reports from a sample of industrial, commercial, and governmental establishments which together employ about 25 million workers. They are available for a great number of different industries, for the past quarter-century or more.45 Another Bureau program which contributed to the analysis of future employment trends was its series of studies of productivity and technological developments. Anticipated productivity trends and technological changes were allowed for in converting the projections of demand for the products of a given industry into estimates of the number of workers who will be needed in that industry. Information on employment of scien tists and engineers in research and other activities, obtained from surveys conducted by the Bureau in cooperation with the National Science Foundation, has also been extensively utilized.® Still another Bureau project which had a major role in the development of estimates of future employment requirements in different occupations is the Occupa tional Industry Matrix. The matrix consists of a set of tables for 125 industry sectors which represent the en tire economy of the United States. For each industry sector, the tables show a percentage distribution of employment among about 150 of the most important occupations and also among the major occupational groups. The matrix was valuable in appraising the effects of changing employment levels in different indus tries on employment in specified occupations. It was also useful in estimating the numbers of workers cur rently employed in each occupation. This was an im portant function, since for many occupations the 1960 Census of Population was the most recent source of basic data on employment, and for many others only fragmentary data were available, which had to be integrated by means of the matrix in order to derive overall estimates of employment. Conclusions based on the analysis of information from these many sources generally indicate increases in em ployment and, hence, openings for new workers. Ex pected gains in employment, however, are by no means an adequate indication of the total numbers of job openings which will need to be filled. In most occupa tions, more workers are needed yearly to fill positions left vacant by those who leave the occupation (to enter The reports in this H a n d b o o k have been grouped in the manner which seemed most appropriate in view of the needs of the users and the realities of the industrial world. 4 See Employmen t and Earnings, described on page 857. 5 Bureau of Labor S tatistics, Employm ent of Scientific and Technical Personnel in In dustry , i9 60 (B ulletin 1418, June 1964) ; for sale by Superintendent of Documents, W ashington, D.C. 20402, 50 cents a copy. 6 See Monthly Labor Review, July 1963, pp. 820—823, Tables of Working Life for Men, 1960. Data on women are published in Tables of Working Life for Women, 1950, (BLS Bulletin 1204, 1957) ; for sale by Superintendent of Documents, W ashing ton, D.C. 20402, 30 cents a copy. D .O .T. Classification Numbers 836 The arrangement followed does not conform to any one established system of classifying occupations. Provision has been made, nevertheless, to meet the needs of those persons who wish to relate the occupations discussed to an established classification system. The occupations covered in the O c c u p a t i o n a l O u t l o o k H a n d b o o k are or ganized according to the occupational classification system developed by the Bureau of Employment Security of the U.S. Department of Labor and published in the D i c t i o n a r y o f O c c u p a tio n a l T itle s . The D i c t i o n a r y provides a code number (the so-called D.O.T. number) for each occupation included in it. In this H a n d b o o k the code numbers of both the second and the third editions, have been shown, if possible with each occupational heading. In the body of OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK the text only numbers from the third edition have been shown. The third edition of the D i c t i o n a r y will be released before the end of 1965 or in early 1966 at which time a table converting the code numbers of the second edition to the code numbers of the third edition will be made avail able by the Bureau of Employment Security. The revised third edition of the D i c t i o n a r y will be pub lished in two volumes. Volume I will contain job defini tions arranged alphabetically, as at present; Volume II will provide two arrangements of titles, one primarilly for place ment and one primarily for counseling. All jobs will be classified by a new code structure using six-digit numbers; the system can be used as a filing system for occupational information. Index to Occupations and Industries Page Accelerator operators, atomic en ergy._____________ Account clerks, s e e : Bank clerks___________________ Account executives, advertising___________________ Account executives, s e e : Securities salesmen________ Accountants___________________________________ S e e a l s o : Insurance business________________ Accounting-bookkeeping machine servicemen_____ Accounting clerks, s e e : Bookkeeping workers_____ Acidizers, petroleum and natural gas production.__ Acquisition librarians__________________________ Actors and actresses_____________________________ Actuaries____________________________ 599 615 31 328 28 694 483 287 725 252 175 S ee a ls o : Insurance business_______________________ Mathematicians_________________________ Adding machine operators________________________ Adding machine servicemen______________________ Addressing machine operators____________________ Administrators, hospital________________________ Adult services librarians________________________ Advertising artists and layout m en ______________ Advertising copywriters________________________ _ Advertising managers_____________________________ Advertising production managers________________ Advertising workers____________________________ Aeronautical engineers, s e e : Aerospace engineers__ Aeronautical technicians__________________________ Aerospace engineers_______ See a l s o : Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing____________________________ Aerospace products manufacturing, s e e : Aircraft, missile and spacecraft manufacturing___________ Agents, air traffic, civil aviation_________________ Agents, s e e : Insurance agents and brokers_________________ Real estate salesmen and brokers____________ Agricultural agents, county_____________________ Agricultural economists____ _____________________ Agricultural engineers__________________________ S e e a l s o : Agriculture_________________________ Agricultural extension workers____________________ S e e a l s o : Home economists___________________ Agricultural finance workers______________________ Agricultural research workers_____________________ Agricultural technicians_________________________ Agriculture, occupations in_______________________ Agriculture, occupations related to________________ Agriculture teachers, vocational__________________ Agronomists____________________________________ Air-conditioning and refrigeration mechanics-------- 694 134 292 482 293 94 252 32 31 31 32 31 74 221 74 575 575 640 322 324 800 804 75 804 800 242 805 804 224 792 800 805 145 465 Page Air-conditioning, heating, and refrigeration tech nicians______________________________________ Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing, occupations in_______________________________ Air Force______________________________________ Airframe mechanics, civil aviation_______________ Airline dispatchers, civil aviation________________ Airplane mechanics, civil aviation_______________ S e e a ls o : Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manu facturing ___________________________ Airplane pilots, civil aviation___________________ Airport140 traffic controllers, civil aviation......... .......... Air-route traffic controllers, civil aviation________ Air traffic controllers, civil aviation______________ Air transportation occupations, s e e : Civil aviation.. Alteration tailors, see: Bushelmen, apparel______ Analysts, chemical, pulp, paper, and allied products. Analysts, investment, s e e : Insurance business____ Analytical chemists____________________________ Analytical statisticians_________________________ Anatom ists_________ Animal husbandry specialists, s e e : Agriculture___ Annealers, foundry_____________________________ Announcers, radio and television________________ Anodizers, electronics manufacturing...... ............ — Anthropologists________________________________ Apparel industry, occupations in the_____________ Appliance servicemen________________ S e e a l s o : Electric power____________________ Appraisers, real estate__________________________ Arc cutters, s e e : Welders_______________________ Arc welders____________________________________ Archeologists, s e e : Anthropologists______________ Architects_____________________________________ Architects, landscape___________________________ Archivists, s e e : Historians______________________ Armament assemblers, aircraft, missiles, and space craft________________________________________ Armed Forces----------------Army_________________________________________ Art directors, s e e : Commercial artists____________ Art related occupations_________________________ Artists, s e e : Advertising workers________________________ Commercial artists_________________________ Printing (graphic a rts)_____________________ Artists, lithographic, printing (graphic arts)--------Asbestos and insulating workers-------------------------837 221 572 832 632 635 632 578 624 637 637 636 621 585 737 694 162 138 145 804 608 749 660 197 582 468 653 326 568 567 197 237 245 204 576 831 832 187 187 32 187 528 528 372 838 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Page Assemblers____________________________________ 533 S e e a ls o : Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufac turing______________________________ Apparel industry______________________ Electronics manufacturing______________ Motor vehicle and equipment manufac turing______________________________ Assemblers, bench_____________________________ Assemblers, floor__________________ Assembly inspectors, aircraft, missiles, and space craft________________________________________ Assembly mechanics, aircraft, missiles, and space craft__ ____________ Assorters, iron and steel________________________ Astrogeologists_____________ Astronomers___________________________________ Astronautical engineers, see: Aerospace engineers. . Astrophysicists, s e e : Astronomers....................... Atomic energy field, occupations in the__________ Attendants, gasoline service station______________ Attendants, hospital_____________ Attorneys_____________________________________ Audio-control technicians, radio and television___ Audiologists........ .......... Auditors, s e e : Accountants.............. Automatic bowling machine mechanics...................... Automatic rolling mill attendants, iron and s te e l... Automatic screw machine operators, s e e : Machine tool operators________________________________ Automatic transmission specialists, s e e : Automobile mechanics___ _____ Automobile air-conditioning specialists, s e e : Auto mobile mechanics_____ _______________________ Automobile body repairmen_____________________ Automobile-glass mechanics, s e e : Automobile me chanics____________________ Automobile manufacturing occupations, s e e : Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing............... Automobile mechanics.......................... Automobile painters......................................... Automobile parts countermen_________ Automobile-radiator mechanics, s e e : Automobile mechanics._____ ___ Automobile salesmen_____________________ Automobile service advisors_____________________ Automobile trimmers and installation men_______ Automobile upholsterers________________________ Automotive technicians, s e e : Mechanical engineer ing technicians_______________________________ Auxiliary equipment operators, electric power__ Auxiliary nursing workers, s e e : Hospital attend ants_________________________________________ Aviation occupations, s e e : Civil aviation_________ 576 584 659 715 533 533 576 576 704 150 171 74 172 591 551 352 248 752 128 28 471 703 454 477 478 474 478 709 477 535 312 478 309 314 537 537 223 647 353 621 Page Bakers, all-round_______________________________ Baking and molding machine operators, baking__ Baking industry, occupations in the______________ Ballet dancers_________________________________ Bank clerks____________________________________ Banking occupations____________________________ Bai kmen, printing (graphic arts)_______________ Bank officers___________________________________ Bank tellers____________________________________ Barbers________________________________________ Barker operators, pulp, paper, and allied products. Bartenders, restaurant----------Beater engineers, pulp, paper, and allied products._ Beauticians----------Beauty operators_________________ Bellhops, hotel_________________________________ Bellmen and bell captains, hotel_________________ Bench assemblers, foundry----------------Bench coremakers, foundry_____________________ Bench hands, baking___________________________ Bench molders, foundry_________________________ Benchmen, optical goods________________________ Bill clerks, s e e : Cashiers________________________ Billing machine operators_______________________ Bindery workers, printing (graphic arts)-------------Biochemists____________________________________ S e e a l s o : Agriculture_______________________ Biological oceanographers_______________________ Biological sciences_____________________________ Biological technicians___________________________ Biologists______________________________________ Biophysicists___________________________________ Blacksmiths___________________________________ 606 606 605 178 614 612 519 618 616 355 734 777 734 357 357 679 679 533 674 606 673 545 289 292 530 165 804 159 143 224 143 145 540 S e e a ls o : Forge shop occupations_________________ Railroad shop trades----------------------------Blanking machine operators, electronics manu facturing____________________________________ Blasters, sand, forge shop----------------------------------Blasters, shot, forge sh op.-------------Blockers, printing (graphic arts)-------------------------Blowers, iron and steel--------------------------------------Boardmen, general, s e e : Commercial artists-------Body repairmen, automobile------------------------------Boiler operators, electric power_________________ Boilermakers.--------------------------------------------------- 443 771 660 445 445 523 701 187 474 646 541 S e e a ls o : Iron and steel industry_________________ Railroad shop trades___________________ Boiler making occupations_______________________ Bookbinders and related workers________________ Bookkeepers__________________ 705 771 541 530 287 S e e a ls o : Babysitters, s e e : Private household workers_____ Back tenders, pulp, paper, and allied products___ Bacteriologists, s e e : Agriculture________________________________ Microbiologists____________________________ 334 735 Bank clerks___________________________ Bookkeeping and accounting clerks--------------------- 615 288 S e e a ls o : 804 145 Bank clerks___________________________ Bookkeepers----------- 615 287 839 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Page Bookkeeping machine operators, s e e : Bank clerks_______________________________ Bookkeeping workers_______________________ Bookkeeping machine servicemen-----------------------Bookkeeping workers___________________________ Bookmobile librarians._________________ Boring machine operators, s e e : Machine tool oper ators________________________________________ Botanists______________________________________ Bowling machine mechanics----------Box office cashiers_________________________ Brake mechanics, s e e : Automobile mechanics------Brakemen, railroad--------------Bricklayers____________________________________ 615 287 483 287 252 454 145 471 289 478 766 374 S e e a ls o : Iron and steel industry-------------------------Railroad bridge and building workers___ Brickmasons_________________________ Bridge and building workers, railroad-----------------Broadcast technicians, radio and television----------Broadcasting occupations, radio and television___ Brokers, insurance_____________________________ Brokers, real estate_____________________________ Building helpers_______________________________ Building laborers_______________________________ Building trades________________________________ Bulldozer operators, s e e : Operating engineers_____ Bundlers, s e e : Assemblers, apparel_______________ Bus boys and girls, restaurant___________________ Busdrivers, intercity________________ Busdrivers, local transit________________________ Bus mechanics_____________ Bushelmen, apparel____________________________ Business administration and related professions... Business machine operators_____________________ Business machine servicemen____________________ Butlers, s e e : Private household workers__________ 704 776 374 776 751 742 322 324 382 382 366 399 584 777 433 436 504 585 26 292 481 335 Cabdrivers____________________________________ Cable splicers, s e e : Electric power industry____________________ Telephone industry________________________ Cable-tool dressers, petroleum and natural gas p roduction...____ ____________________ Cable-tool drillers, petroleum and natural gas production__________________________________ Calculating machine operators__________________ Calculating machine servicemen_________________ Cameramen, printing (graphic arts), s e e : Lithographers_____________________________ Photoengravers____________________________ Cameramen, television, s e e : Broadcast technicians. Captains, civil aviation, s e e : Pilots and copilots__ Card-to-tape converter operators, s e e : Electronics computer operating personnel_________________ Caretakers, s e e : Private household workers______ Carmen, railroad shop__________________________ 439 778-316 0 — 65------54 Page Carpenters____________________________________ 651 787 377 S e e a ls o : Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manu facturing____________________________ Foundry industry______________________ Railroad bridge and building workers___ Carpet layers, s e e : Floor covering installers______ Cartographers, s e e : Geographers________________ Caseworkers, social_____________________________ Cash accounting clerks, s e e : Cashiers____________ Cashiers__ _____________________________________ Cashiers, banking, s e e : Bank officers_____________ Cashiers, restaurant____________________________ Cash register servicemen________________________ Casting inspectors, foundry_____________________ Casualty insurance agents______________________ Catalogers, s e e : Librarians______________________ Catholic priests________________________________ Cementers, petroleum and natural gas production. Cement finishers_______________________________ Cement masons________________________________ Central office clerks, telephone__________________ Central office craftsmen, telephone_______________ Central office equipment installers, telephone_____ Central office operators, telephone_______________ Central office repairmen, telephone______________ Central office supervisors, sec: Telephone operators. Ceramic engineers______________________________ Certified public accountants_____________________ Chainmen, s e e : Surveyors_______________________ Chaplains, s e e : Clergy__________________________ Charging machine operators, iron and steel_______ Check encoders, s e e : Bank clerks________________ Check inscribers, s e e : Bank clerks_______________ Checker-cashiers, restaurants____________________ Checkers, apparel industry______________________ Checkers, s e e : Draftsmen_______________________ Checkers, insurance policy______________________ Checkers, motor vehicle and equipment manufac turing_______________________________________ Check-out clerks, s e e : Cashiers__________________ Chefs, s e e : Cooks and chefs_____________________ Chemical analysts, pulp, paper, and allied products. Chemical engineers_____________________________ 578 668 776 389 201 268 289 289 618 777 483 608 322 251 52 725 380 380 784 784 784 299 784 299 76 28 272 47 702 615 615 778 585 228 694 715 289 347 737 76 S e e a ls o : 724 724 292 482 528 523 751 624 Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufac turing_______________________________ Atomic energy field____________________ Electronics manufacturing______________ Industrial chemical industry____________ Pulp, paper, and allied products industry. Chemical oceanographers_______________________ Chemical operators, industrial chemical__________ Chemical process operators, atomic energy_______ Chemical technicians________________________ — Chemists______________________________________ 575 596 658 688 737 159 687 597 222 162 S e e a ls o : 296 335 771 Atomic energy field____________________ Electronics manufacturing______________ Foundry industry______________________ 596 658 668 840 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Page Chemists— Continued S e e a l s o — Continued Industrial chemical in d u stry ..__________ Iron and steel industry____ ____________ Natural gas processing_________________ Petroleum and natural gas production___ Petroleum refining_____________________ Pulp, paper, and allied products industry. Chief engineers, radio and television_____________ Chief mechanics, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft. _ Chief operators, telephone______________________ Child psychologists-------------------------------------------Child welfare workers, s e e : Social workers________ Children’s librarians_______ Chippermen, pulp, paper, and allied products____ Chippers, s e e : Forge shop________________________________ Foundry industry_________ Chiropodists, s e e : P od iatrists.......................... Chiropractors__________________________ Choreographers, s e e : Dancers______________ Christmas club bookkeepers, s e e : Bank clerks_____ Christmas club tellers, s e e : Bank tellers.......... .......... Cindermen, iron and steel________________________ City carriers, post office________________________ City planners__________________________________ Civil aviation occupations_______________________ Civil engineering technicians____________________ Civil engineers_________________________________ 688 705 730 723 729 737 746 578 299 262 269 252 734 445 668 120 178 615 616 701 821 274 621 222 77 S e e a ls o : Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufac turing________ Atomi c energy field...... ................ Iron and steel industry____ _____ Civil service workers, FederalGovernment________ Civil service workers, State and local government. Claim adjusters, insurance______________________ Cleaners, s e e : Thread trimmers, apparel industry.. Clergy, the------------------------------------------Clerical and related occupations___ _____ Clerk-typists___________________________________ Clerks, banking________________________________ Clerks, civil aviation___________________________ Clerks, insurance_______________________________ Clerks, post office______________________________ Clerks, railroad________________________________ Clerks, reservation, civil aviation________________ Clerks, shipping and receiving___________________ Climatologists, s e e : Meteorologists______________ Clinical psychologists__________ Clothing industry occupations, s e e : Apparel indus t r y . . . . . _____________________________________ Coil winders, electronics manufacturing__________ Collar pointers, apparel_________________________ College and university teachers__________________ College librarians.______________________________ College placement officers_______________________ College professors______________________________ Combination welders_____________________________ Commercial artists_______________________________ 575 596 705 808 827 694 585 47 278 284 614 640 694 824 769 640 302 155 262 582 660 586 216 252 240 216 567 187 Page Commercial photographers______________________ Commercial tellers, banking_____________________ Commodity loan clerks, s e e : Bankclerks__________ Companions, s e e : Private household workers______ Composing room occupations, printing (graphic arts)------------------------------------------------------------Composition roofers____________________________ Compositors, hand, printing (graphic arts)_______ Compressor-station engineers, natural gas process ing__________________________________________ Compressor-station operators, natural gas process ing------------------------Comptometer operators, s e e : Calculating machine operators____________________________________ Comptrollers, banking, s e e : Bank officers_________ Computer operators, s e e : Electronic computer op erating personnel_____________ Computers, petroleum and natural gas production. Concrete finishers______________________________ Conductors, railroad________________ 84 Conservation occupations_______________________ Conservationists, range, s e e : Range managers____ Conservationists, soil___________________________ Console operators, s e e : Electronic computer oper ating personnel_______________________________ Construction electricians_______________________ Construction laborers and hod carriers___________ Construction machinery operators, s e e : Operating engineers____________________________________ Construction trades, s e e : Building trades_________ Continuity directors, radio and television------------Continuity writers, radio and television__________ Contractors, building trades------------------------------Control clerks, s e e : Bank clerks_________________ Control room operators, electric power___________ Controllers, air route___________________________ Controllers, airport traffic______________________ Controllers, s e e : Accountants-----------------------------Converter operators, s e e : Electronic computer oper ating personnel______________________________ Cooks and chefs________________________________ Cooks, s e e : Digester operators, pulp, paper, and allied products industry______________________ Cooks, s e e : Private household workers---------------Cooks’ helpers, s e e : Private household workers----Copilots, civil aviation_________________________ Copy boys, s e e : Newspaper reporters____________ Copying machine servicemen-----------------------------Copywriters, advertising________________________ Core assemblers, foundry_______________________ Coremakers, foundry___________________________ S e e a l s o : Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing________________ Coremaking machine operators, foundry-------------Core-oven tenders, foundry_____________________ Coresetters, foundry___________________________ Corn and wheat farmers________________________ Corrugating operators, pulp, paper, and allied products____________________________________ Cosmetologists_____________________________a— 256 616 615 334 519 411 519 730 730 293 618 295 723 380 764 54 58 802 296 384 382 399 366 744 744 367 615 646 637 637 29 296 347 734 334 334 624 232 484 31 667 674 ”14 674 667 667 798 841 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Page Cost clerks, see: Accountants________________ Cotton growers________________________________ Counseling____________________________________ Counseling psychologists, s e e : P sych ologists_____ Counselors, s e e : Rehabilitation counselors___________________ School counselors__________________________ Vocational counselors______________________ Counter attendants, restaurant__________________ Counters, pulp, paper and allied products_______ Country collection clerks, s e e : Bank clerks________ County agricultural agents______________________ County home demonstration agents_____________ Court reporters________________________________ Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers________ Cranemen, forge shop__________________________ Cranemen, iron and steel_______________________ Crane operators, s e e : Foundry industry__________________________ Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing.. Operating engineers________________________ Credit analysts, s e e : Bank officers_______________ Credit cashiers, s e e : Cashiers____________________ Crew chiefs, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft_____ Crop dusters, civil aviation_____________________ Crop reporters_________________________________ Crop specialty farmers_________________________ Crystal finishers, electronics manufacturing______ Crystal grinders, electronics manufacturing______ Cultural anthropologists________________________ Cupola tenders, foundry________________________ Customer service occupations, electric power____ Customers’ brokers, s e e : Securities salesmen_____ Cutters, apparel_______________________________ Cutters, fur, apparel____________________________ Cutters, motor vehicle and equipment manufactur ing--------------------------------------------------------------Cutting room occupations, apparel_______________ Cytologists, s e e : Anatomists____________________ Dairy farmers__________________________________ Dancers_______________________ Data-processing machine servicemen_____________ Data typists, s e e : Typists______________________ S e e a l s o : Electronic computer operators_____ Day workers, s e e : Private household workers_____ Decontamination men, atomic energy____________ Decorators, interior designers and_______________ Dehydration-plant operators, natural gas process ing--------------------------------------------------------------Deliverymen, s e e : Routemen____________________ Dental hygienists______________________________ Dental laboratory technicians___________________ Dentists_______________________________________ Derrick operators, s e e : Foundry industry________ Derrickmen, petroleum and natural gas production. Derrickmen, s e e : Stonemasons__________________ Design draftsmen______________________________ Designers, apparel______________________________ 29 799 61 61 64 61 67 777 735 615 800 800 282 361 444 702 668 715 399 618 289 578 621 805 799 660 660 197 668 653 328 584 586 714 583 145 795 178 483 284 296 334 599 192 730 430 85 87 89 668 724 416 228 583 Page Designers, industrial____________________________ S e e a l s o listing under Industrial designers. Designers, interior______________________________ Designers, scenic, radio and television____________ S e e a l s o : Interior designers and decorators. Designers, tool and machine, s e e : Mechanical technicians. -------------------------------------------------Designing room occupations, apparel_____________ Desk clerks, hotel______________________________ Detailers, s e e : Draftsmen_______________________ Detectives, police______________________________ Developmental psychologists____________________ Development engineers, radio and television______ Dictating-machine servicemen___________________ Die makers, pulp, paper, and allied products_____ Die makers, tool and___________________________ S e e a l s o listing under Tool and die makers. Diesel mechanics_______________________________ Diesel technicians, s e e : Mechanical technicians___ Die sinkers, forge shop_________________________ Dietitians_____________________________________ Digester operators, pulp, paper, and allied products. Directors, art, s e e : Commercial artists___________ Directors, college placement, s e e : College place ment officers_________________________________ Directors, education, radio and television________ Directors, program, radio and television__________ Directors, public affairs, radio and television_____ Disbursement clerks, s e e : Cashiers_______________ Di§c jockeys, radio and television________________ Discount bookkeepers, s e e : Bank clerks__________ Discount tellers, banking_______________________ Dishwashers, restaurant________________________ Dispatchers, s e e : Civil aviation______________________________ Railroads__________________________________ Dispatchers, load, electric light and power_______ Dispensing opticians and optical laboratory (shop) mechanics___________________________________ Distribution clerks, post offi ce___________________ Distributors, work, apparel_____________________ District representatives, electric power___________ Dividermen, baking____________________________ Doctors, medical_______________________________ Domestic workers, s e e : Private household workers. Dough molders, baking_________________________ Draftsmen_____________________________________ 190 192 745 223 583 681 228 343 262 746 483 736 456 487 223 445 92 734 187 241 744 744 744 289 749 615 616 777 635 756 649 544 824 585 653 606 117 334 606 228 S e e a ls o : Atomic energy field____________________ Electronics manufacturing______________ Iron and steel industry_________________ Petroleum and natural gas production___ Petroleum refining_____________________ Drama teachers, s e e : Actors and actresses________ Dressmakers, apparel__________________________ Drill press operators, s e e : Machine tool operators.. Drillers, petroleum and natural gas production----Drivers, intercity buses________________________ Drivers, local transit buses_____________________ 595 658 705 723 729 175 585 454 724 433 436 842 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Page Drivers, local trucks___________________________ Drivers, over-the-road trucks___________________ Drivers, taxi___________________________________ Driver-salesmen, s e e : Routemen_________________ S e e a l s o : Baking industry___________________ Driving occupations____________________________ Druggists__________ Duplicating and copying machine servicemen_____ Duplicating machine operators__________________ Dynamic meteorologists________________________ Earth-boring machine operators, s e e : Operating engineers____________________________________ Earth sciences_________________________________ Economic geographers__________________________ Economic geologists____________________________ Economists____________________________________ Economists, agricultural-,______________________ Editors, film, television_________________________ Editors, newspaper____________________________ Education directors, radio and television_________ Electrical appliance servicemen__________________ Electrical assemblers, aircraft, missiles, and space craft-_______________________________________ Electrical engineers_____________________________ 427 423 439 430 608 422 112 484 293 155 400 149 201 149 190 804 745 232 744 468 577 78 S e e a ls o : Atomic energy field____________________ Electronics manufacturing______________ Industrial chemical industry____________ Iron and steel industry_________________ Motor vehicle and equipment manufac turing______________________________ Pulp, paper, and allied products industry . Electrical repairmen, iron and steel______________ Electrical workers, s e e : Railroad bridge and building workers_____________________________________ Electric-arc w eld ers-__________________________ S e e a l s o : Motor vehicle and equipment manufac turing--___________________________________ Electricians, construction____ Electricians, maintenance_______________________ S e e a l s o : listing under Maintenance electricians. Electric power linemen_________________________ Electric power industry, occupations in th e _______ Electromechanical machinery servicemen, s e e : Post age and mailing equipment servicemen________ Electronic computer operating personnel_________ Electronic computer programers_________________ Electronic data-processing equipment servicemen, s e e : Business machine servicemen_____________ Electronic reader-sorter operators, s e e : Bank clerks. Electronics checkout men, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft___________________________________ Electronics engineers, s e e : Atomic energy field________________________ Electronics manufacturing__________________ Electronics manufacturing occupations___________ Electronics repairmen, iron and s t e e l . ___________ 596 658 688 705 712 737 704 776 567 714 384 495 650 642 484 295 258 483 615 578 596 658 655 704 Page Electronics technicians__________________________ 223 S e e a ls o : Atomic energy field____________________ Electronics manufacturing______________ Electroplaters__________________________________ S e e a l s o : Electronics manufacturing__________ Electrotypers and stereotypers, printing (graphic arts)________________________________________ Elementary school teachers_____________________ Elevator constructors___________________________ Elevator mechanics_____________________________ Elevator operators, hotel________________________ Embossing machine operators, clerical___________ Embryologists_________________________________ S e e a l s o : Agriculture________________________ Employment counselors, s e e : Vocational counselors. Engineering__ Engineering aids _______ S e e a l s o : Electronics manufacturing__________ Engineering and science technicians______________ Engineering geologists__________________________ Engineering psychologists, s e e : Psychologists_____ Engineering technicians_________________________ Engineers, aeronautical, s e e : Engineers, aerospace. _ Engineers, aerospace____ _______________________ S e e a l s o : Aircraft, missile and spacecraft manu facturing________________________________ Engineers, agricultural_________ S e e a l s o : Agriculture_______________________ Engineers, astronautical, s e e : Engineers, aerospace. Engineers, ceramic_____________________________ Engineers, chemical____________________________ S e e a l s o listing under Chemical engineers. Engineers, civil_________________________________ S e e a l s o listing under Civil engineers. Engineers, compressor-station, natural gas process ing---------------------------------------------------------------Engineers, development, radio and television_____ Engineers, electrical____________________________ S e e a l s o listing under Electrical engineers. Engineers, electronics, s e e listing under Electronics engineers. Engineers, flight, civil aviation ._________________ Engineers, foundry_____________________________ Engineers, gasoline-plant, natural gas processing._ Engineers, industrial___________________________ S e e a l s o listing under Industrial engineers. Engineers, locomotive__________________________ S e e a l s o : Iron and steel industry_____________ Engineers, mechanical.__________________________ S e e a l s o listing under Mechanical engineers. Engineers, metallurgical________________________ S e e a l s o listing under Metallurgical engineers. Engineers, mining______________________________ Engineers, oceanographic, s e e : Oceanographers___ Engineers, operating,building trades ___________ Engineers, packaging, pulp, paper, and allied products____________________________________ Engineers, petroleum___________________________ S e e a l s o listing under Petroleum engineers. 597 658 549 661 524 211 388 388 676 293 146 804 67 70 220 658 220 150 262 220 74 74 575 75 792 74 76 76 77 730 746 78 628 668 730 79 760 705 80 81 82 159 399 737 723 843 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Page Engineers, reactor, atomic energy......................... Engineers, stationary________________ S e e a l s o listing under Stationary engineers. Engineers, watch, electric power_________________ Engine lathe operators_______________ __________ Engine mechanics, aircraft, missiles, and space craft________________________________________ Enginemen, petroleum and natural gas produc tion___________________ Entomologists_______________________ S e e a l s o : Agriculture_______________________ Envelope-machine operators, pulp, paper, and allied products_______________________________ Equipment manufacturing, s e e : Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing____________________ Estimators, building trades____________ Etchers, printing (graphic arts)_________________ Etching equipment operators, electronics manu facturing____________________________________ Ethnologists, s e e : Anthropologists...................... Exchange clerks, s e e : Bank clerks............ ................... Exhaust operators, electronics manufacturing_____ Experimental machinists, s e e : Instrument makers (mechanical)_________________________________ Exploration geophysicists_________ Extension agents, agricultural_____________________ Extras, s e e : Actors and actresses________________ Fabrication inspectors, aircraft, missiles, and space craft________________________________________ Family service workers, s e e : Social workers______ Farm cooperative workers______________________ Farm housekeepers, s e e : Private household work ers____________________________________________ Farm operators__________________________________ Farm service jobs______________________________ Farm workers, hired____________________________ Fashion illustrators, s e e : Commercial artists_____ FBI agents____________________________________ Federal Government occupations________________ Film editors, television_________________________ Film librarians, television_______________________ Final assemblers, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft-. Finance workers, agricultural___________________ Finishers, crystal, electronics manufacturing______ Finishers, fur, apparel__________________________ Finishers, motor vehicle and equipment manufac turing------ -------Finishers, optical goods_________________________ Finishers, printing (graphic arts)________________ Firefighters, protective service____________________ Firemen, petroleum and natural gas production___ Firemen, protective service, s e e : Firefighters_____ Firemen (helpers), railroad______________________ Firemen, stationary (boiler)_____________________ Firers, hydrogen furnace, electronics manufacturing. Fitup men, boilermaking occupations______________ Flagmen, railroad___________ Flight attendants, civil aviation............................ 595 562 648 454 578 724 146 804 736 709 369 523 661 197 615 661 458 152 800 175 577 269 805 334 794 806 794 187 338 808 745 745 576 805 660 586 Page Flight checkout occupations, s e e : Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing_________________ Flight engineers, civil aviation__________________ Flight superintendents, s e e : Airline dispatchers, civil aviation________________________________ Floor assemblers_______________________________ Floor boys and girls, s e e : Work distributors, ap parel industry________________________________ Floor clerks and supervisors, hotel_______________ Floor coremakers, foundry______________________ Floor covering installers------------------------------------Floor covering mechanics_______________________ Floor housekeepers, hotel_____ _________________ Floor layers, s e e : Floor covering installers________ Floor managers, radio and television_____________ Floor molders, foundry_________________________ Floormen, rotary, petroleum and natural gas pro duction______________________________________ Floormen, television_____________________ Food checkers, restaurant_______________________ Food chemists_________________________________ Food managers, s e e : H otels_____________________ Forest land managers, s e e : Foresters_____________ Foresters______________________________________ S e e a l s o : Pulp, paper, and allied products____ Forestry aid s..............— -----------------------------------Forestry technicians, s e e : Forestry aids__________ Forge shop occupations_________________________ S e e a l s o : Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing________________________________ Forge shop welders, s e e : Blacksmiths____________ Forging press operators, forge shop______________ Forklift truck operators, s e e : Power truck operators Foundry industry______________________________ S e e a l s o : Motor vehicle and equipment ma iu facturing________________________________ Framemen, telephone central office craftsmen___ Free-lance artists, s e e : Commercial artists________ Front-end mechanics, see: Automobile m echanics.. Front office clerks, hotel________ Fur cutters, apparel____________________________ Fur machine operators, apparel______________ — Fur nailers, apparel____________________________ Fur shop occupations, apparel___________________ Gagers, petroleum and natural gas production____ Garage mechanics, s e e : Automobile mechanics____ Gas appliance servicemen_______________________ 714 Gas fitters, s e e : Plumbers and pipefitters_________ 545 Gasoline-plant engineers, natural gas processing__ 523 Gasoline-plant operators, natural gas processing__ 340 Gasoline service station attendants_____ _________ 724 Gasoline service station managers. ______________ 340 Gas welders____________________________________ 762 S e e a l s o : Motor vehicle and equipment manu 565 facturing. -------General boardmen, s e e : Commercial artists______ 661 542 General bookkeepers___________________________ S e e a l s o : Bank clerks_______________________ 766 General maids, s e e : Private household workers___ 630 578 628 635 533 585 681 674 389 389 682 389 745 673 724 745 777 162 684 54 54 737 56 56 443 714 540 444 559 666 714 784 187 478 681 586 586 586 586 725 477 468 408 730 730 551 551 567 714 187 288 615 334 844 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Page General practitioners, see: Physicians....................... Geneticists____________________________________ S e e a l s o : Agriculture_________________________ Geochemists, see; Geologists______________________ Geodesists, s e e : Geophysicists___________________ Geodetic surveyors_____________________________ Geographers_____________________________________ Geological oceanographers________________________ Geologists_____________________________________ S e e a l s o : Petroleum and natural gas produc tion______________________________________ Geomagneticians, see: Geophysicists______________ Geomorphologists, see: Geologists_________________ G eophysicists___________________________________ S e e a l s o : Petroleum and natural gas produc tion_____________________________ Glass blowers, electronics manufacturing__________ Glass lathe operators, electronics manufacturing__ Glaziers_________________________________________ Governesses, see; Private household workers_____ Government occupations, Federal_______________ S e e a l s o : Post office_______________________ Government occupations, State and local__________ Government, occupations in the_________________ Grain farmers, see: Corn and wheat farmers_____ Gravure pressmen, printing (graphic arts)________ Grid lathe operators, electronics manufacturing___ Grinders, s e e : Forge shop__________________________________ Foundry industry__________________________ Grinding machine operators, see: Machine tool op erators______________________________________ Grocery checkers, see: Cashiers___________________ Groundmen, electric power_______________________ Ground radio operators and teletypists, civil avia tion_________________________________________ Guidance counselors____________________________ 117 Heat treaters, see: 146 Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufactur 804 ing--------------------------------------------------------Forge shop________________________________ 150 Foundry industry__________________________ 152 272 Helpers, baking________________________________ 201 Helpers, building trad es._______________________ 159 Helpers, iron and steel__________________________ Helpers, petroleum and natural gas production___ 149 Helpers, see: Telephone central office craftsmen. _ 722 High school teachers____________________________ 152 High speed printer operators, see: Electronic com puter operating personnel_____________________ 150 152 Highway surveyors_____________________________ Historians_____________________________________ Hod723 carriers_________ S e e a ls o : 660 Bricklayers____________________________ 660 Plasterers_____________________________ 393 Home demonstration agents, county, see: Occupa 334 tions related to agriculture____________________ 808 S e e a l s o : Home economists_________________ 817 827 Home economists______________________________ S e e a ls o : 808 Agricultural extension workers__________ 798 Dietitians_____________________________ 529 660 Home housekeepers, see: Private household workers. Home office underwriters, insurance______________ 445 Horticulturists_________________________________ 668 Hospital administrators_________________________ Hospital attendants____________________________ Hospital nurses________________________________ 454 289 Hospital recreation specialists, see: Recreation workers_____________________________________ 651 Hostlers, railroad_______________________________ Hot-cell technicians, atomic energy______________ 638 Hot metal cranemen, iron and steel______________ 61 Hotel managers________________________________ Hotel occupations______________________________ H airdr essers___________________________________ 357 Household workers, see: Private household workers. Hammer drivers, forge shop_______________ - ____ 444 Hammer operators, forge shop___ ________________ 444 Housekeepers, see: Private household workers____ Housekeepers and assistants, hotel_______________ Hammer runners, forge shop____________________ 444 Housemen, hotel_______________________________ Hammermen, see: Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing_________________________________ 714 Housemen, see: Private household workers_______ Hammersmiths, forge shop_______________________ 443 Human nutritionists, see: Agriculture____________ Husbandry specialists (animal)__________________ Hand bookkeepers_____________________________ 288 Hydrogen funlace firers, electronics manufacturing. Hand compositors, printing (graphic arts)________ 519 Hand cutters, apparel__________________________ 584 Hydrologists, see: Geophysicists_________________ Hand icers, baking-____________________________ 607 Hygienists, dental______________________________ Hand molders, foundry_________________________ 673 Hand sewers, apparel___________________________ 584 Icers, baking___________________________________ Hand spreaders, apparel________________________ 584 Icing mixers, baking____________________________ Handymen, see: Private household workers______ 334 Illustrators, see: Commercial artists_____________ Health physicists, atomic energy__________________ 598 Illustrators, technical, see listing under Technical illustrators. Health physics technicians, atomic energy________ 598 Industrial chemical industry, occupations in th e__ Health service occupations______________________ 83 Industrial designers_____________________________ Heaters, see: S e e a ls o : Forge shop________________________________ 444 Atomic energy field____________________ Iron and steel industry_______________________ 702 Electronics m anufacturing_____________ Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing. 714 Page 576 445 668 606 383 701 723 784 214 296 272 203 382 374 406 800 242 242 800 92 334 694 146 94 352 122 265 756 599 702 683 676 334 334 682 676 335 804 146 661 152 85 607 607 187 686 190 594 658 845 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Page Industrial engineers____________________________ 79 S e e a ls o : Electronics manufacturing______________ Motor vehicle and equipment manufac turing______________________________ Industrial machinery repairmen_________________ Industrial meteorologists______________ _______ __ Industrial nurses_______________________________ Industrial photographers_______________________ Industrial psychologists_________________________ Industrial recreation specialists, s e e : Recreation specialists_________ Industrial salesmen______________ Industrial technicians___________________________ Industrial traffic managers______________________ Infants’ nurses, s e e : Pri\ate household workers___ Information and mail clerks, hotel_______________ Information operators, telephone......... ...................... Infrared oven operators, electronics manufacturing Ingot strippers, iron and steel___________________ Inorganic chemists___________ Inspectors (manufacturing)_____________________ 658 712 491 155 123 256 262 265 319 223 34 334 681 299 661 702 162 553 S e e a ls o : Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manu facturing------------,____ ______ ________ Apparel industry______________________ Electronics manufacturing______________ Forge shop-----------------------------------------Foundry industry______________________ Iron and steel industry_________________ Motor vehicle and equipment manufac turing______________________________ Pulp, paper, and allied products industry. Installation men, s e e : Automobile trimmers (auto mobile upholsterers)__________________________ Installers and repairmen, telephone and P B X ____ Installers, floor covering________________________ Installers, meter, electric power_________________ Installers, telephone central office equipment_____ Instrument maintenance men, s e e : Instrument re pairmen_____________________________________ Instrument makers (mechanical)________________ Instrument mechanics, s e e : Instrument repairmen, Instrument men, s e e : Instrument repairmen______ Instrument repairmen__________________________ 577 585 661 445 608 698 714 737 537 789 389 653 786 492 458 492 492 492 S e e a ls o : Industrial chemical industry_______ Pulp, paper, and allied products industry, Instrument technicians, s e e : Instrument repairmen, Instrumentation technicians____________________ Instrumentmen, s e e : Surveyors__________________ Insulating workers_____________________________ Insurance agents and brokers___________________ Insurance business, occupations in the___________ Insurance checkers_____________________________ Insurance clerks________________________________ Intercity busdrivers____________________________ Intercity truckdrivers__________________________ Interest-accrual bookkeepers, s e e : Bank clerks____ Interest clerks, s e e : Bank clerks................. 688 736 492 224 272 372 322 693 694 694 433 423 615 615 Page Interior designers and decorators________________ Intertype operators, printing (graphic arts)______ Interviewers, marketing research________________ Investigators, FB I_____________________________ Investment analysts, s e e : Insurance business______ Iron and steel industry, occupations in the_______ Iron workers, building trades___________________ S e e a l s o : Railroad bridge and building workers. 192 519 37 338 694 698 417 776 Janitors, restaurant____________________________ Jewelers and jewelry repairmen_________________ Jig and fixture builders, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft___________________________________ Journalists, see: Newspaper reporters____________ Junior high school teachers, s e e : Secondary school teachers_____________________________________ 777 555 Keepers, iron and steel___ _______ Key clerks, hotel________________________________ Keypunch operators____________________________ 701 681 293 576 232 214 S e e a ls o : Electronic computer operating personnel, Kindergarten teachers__________________________ Kitchen workers, restaurant_____________________ 296 211 777 Laboratory (shop) mechanics, optical____________ Laboratory technicians_________________________ 544 220 S e e a ls o : Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufac turing______________________________ Atomic energy field____________________ Electronics manufacturing______________ Industrial chemical industry____________ Iron and steel industry_________________ Petroleum refining_____________________ Pulp, paper, and allied products industry, Laboratory technicians, dental__________________ Laboratory technicians, medical, s e e : Medical tech nologists______________________________________ Laboratory technicians, optical___________________ Laborers and hod carriers, building trades_________ Ladle cranemen, iron and steel____________________ Land managers, forest, s e e : Foresters____________ Land surveyors___________________________ Landmen, petroleum and natural gas production,, Landscape architects_____________________________ Larrymen, iron and steel_________________________ Lathe operators, s e e : Machine tool operators_____ Lathers________________________________________ Laundresses, s e e : Private household workers______ Lawyers_________________________________________ Layout artists, s e e : Commercial artists_____ ______ Layout men, advertising________________________ S e e a l s o : Commercial artists________________ Layout men (machine tools)______________________ S e e a l s o : Boilermaking occupations___________ Leasemen, petroleum and natural gas production., Legal secretaries_________________________________ Letterers, s e e : Commercial artists_________________ Letterpress pressmen, printing (graphic arts)_____ 577 593 658 689 705 729 737 87 101 544 383 702 54 272 723 245 701 454 394 334 248 187 32 187 461 541 723 282 187 526 846 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Page Librarians_______________________________________ Librarians, medical record______________________ Librarians, tape, s e e : Electronic computer oper ating personnel________________________________ Librarians, television film_________________________ Licensed practical nurses_______________________ Licensed vocational nurses______________________ Life insurance agents_____________________________ Lighting directors, television____________________ Lighting technicians, television__________________ Line-haul truckdrivers___________________________ Line maintenance mechanics, civilaviation_______ Linemen and cable splicers, telephone_____________ Linemen, s e e : Electric power industry____________________ Telephone industry________________________ Linotype operators, printing (graphic arts)_______ Lithographic artists, printing (graphic arts)______ Lithographic occupations, printing (graphic arts).. Lithographic pressmen, printing (graphic arts)___ Livestock farmers______________________________ Load dispatchers, electric power_________________ Loan officers, banking__________________________ Local government occupations__________________ Local transit busdrivers________________________ Local truckdrivers______________________________ Locomotive engineers, railroad__________________ S e e a l s o : Iron and steel industry____________ Locomotive firemen (helpers), railroad___________ Long distance operators, telephone____________ Long-haul truckdrivers_________________________ Machine coremakers, foundry__ ________________ Machine designers, s e e : Mechanical engineering technicians__________________________________ Machine icers, baking__________________________ Machine molders, s e e : Foundry industry__________________________ Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing. Machine movers, s e e : Riggers and machine movers. Machine (resistance) welders, motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing____________________ Machine spreaders, apparel_____________________ Machine tenders, s e e : Paper machine operators, pulp, paper, and allied products_______________ Machine tool operators_________________________ 251 99 297 745 97 97 322 746 752 423 632 787 650 787 519 527 528 528 797 649 618 827 436 427 760 705 762 299 423 674 223 607 672 714 418 714 584 735 454 S e e a ls o : Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manu facturing____________________________ Electronics manufacturing______________ Foundry industry______________________ Iron and steel industry_________________ Motor vehicle and equipment manufac turing______________________________ Machined parts inspectors, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft___________________________________ Machinery repairmen, industrial________________ Machining o c c u p a t io n s ............... .......... , ________ S e e a l s o : Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing. _____ . . . ____. . . . . . . . . . _____ _ 575 659 668 698 713 577 491 448 713 Page Machinists, all-round___________________________ 452 S e e a ls o : Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manu facturing____________________________ Atomic energy field____________________ Electronics manufacturing______________ Foundry industry______________________ Instrument makers (mechanical)________ Iron and steel industry_________________ Petroleum refining_____________________ Pulp, paper, and allied products industry.. Railroad shop trades___________________ Maids, hotel___________________________________ Maids, s e e : Private household workers___________ Mail and information clerks, hotel_______________ Mail carriers, post office________________________ Mail clerks, post office__________________________ Mail handlers, post office_______________________ Mail preparing and mail handling machine oper ators, office machine operators________________ Mailing equipment servicemen__________________ Mailmen, post office____ ________________________ Maintenance electricians________________________ 572 593 659 658 452 704 728 736 771 676 334 681 821 824 821 293 484 821 495 S e e a ls o : Electronics manufacturing______________ Iron and steel industry_________________ Pulp, paper, and allied products industry. . Railroad shop trades___________________ Maintenance mechanics, s e e : Industrial machinery repairmen___________________________________ Maintenance technicians, radio and television_____ Makeup artists, television.______________________ Makeup men, printing (graphic arts)_____________ Managerial occupations, s e e : Professional, man agerial, and related occupations_______________ Managers, advertising__________________________ Managers and assistants, hotel__________________ Managers, food, hotel___________________________ Managers, forest land, s e e : Foresters______________ Managers, gasoline service station_______________ Managers, industrial traffic_____________________ Managers, land, s e e : Foresters___________________ Managers, range_______________________________ Managers, restaurant____ _______________________ Managers, sales, s e e : H o te ls ____________________________________ Radio and television broadcasting___________ Manipulator operators, iron and steel____________ Manual workers________________________________ M anufacturers’ salesmen_______________________ Marble setters, tile setters, and terrazzo workers___ Markers, a p p a r e l._____________________________ Marketing research w orkers____________________ Market news reporters_________________________ Masons, brick____ _____________________________ 662 704 736 771 491 752 745 519 22 31 683 684 54 551 34 54 58 777 682 746 703 533 319 396 584 36 805 374 S e e a ls o : Iron and steel industry_________________ Railroad bridge and building workers. . . . . Masons, cement and concrete_____ . . . . . . . . . . ____ Masons, ston e...................................... 704 755 380 416 847 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Page Page Materials handlers, motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing____________________________ — Mathematical assistants, electronics manufacturing. Mathematical statisticians............................ Mathematicians_____________________ Metallurgical engineers_________________________ 715 658 137 134 S e e a ls o : Actuaries____________________ Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufac turing______________________ Electronics manufacturing........................ Statisticians..................... Mathematics and related field s.._____ __________ Mathematics technicians_______________________ Mechanical engineering technicians______________ Mechanical engineers___________________________ 140 575 658 137 134 224 223 80 S e e a ls o : Atomic energy field____________________ Electronics manufacturing______________ Industrial chemical industry........................ Iron and steel industry_________________ Motor vehicle and equipment manufactur ing_________________________________ Pulp, paper, and allied products industry. Mechanics and repairmen___________ Mechanics, s e e : Air-conditioning mechanics_________________ Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufactur ing_______________________________ Airplane mechanics________________________ Automatic bowling machine mechanics______ Automobile mechanics_____________________ Bus mechanics__________ Diesel mechanics___________________________ Dispensing opticians and optical laboratory (shop) mechanics________________________ Electronics manufacturing__________________ Floor covering installers___ _____ Foundry industry_____________ Refrigeration mechanics____________________ Truck mechanics___________________________ Vending machine mechanics________________ S e e a l s o fisting under Servicemen and under Repairmen. Media directors, advertising____________________ Medical record librarians.............. Medical secretaries_____________________________ Medical social workers_________________________ Medical technologists___________________________ Medical X-ray technicians_________ Medical X-ray technologists____________________ Melters, s e e : Foundry industry___________ Iron and steel industry_____________________ Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing. _ Messengers, b a n k _____________________________ Metal cranemen, iron and steel__________________ Metal finishers, motor vehicle and equipment man ufacturing________________________________— 596 658 688 705 712 737 463 465 578 632 471 477 504 487 544 662 389 668 465 504 507 32 99 282 269 101 104 104 668 701 714 615 702 714 81 S e e a ls o : Atomic energy field____________________ Electronics manufacturing______________ Iron and steel industry_________________ Metallurgical technicians_______________________ Metallurgists, s e e : Atomic energy field__________________________ Electronics manufacturing____________________ Foundry industry__________________________ Iron and steel industry_____________________ Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing. Metal patternmakers, foundry__________________ Meteorologists_________________________________ Meter installers, electric power__________________ Meter readers, electric power___________________ Meter testers, electric power____ _______________ Metermen, electric power_______________________ Microbiologists_______________________________ Milkmen, s e e : Routemen_______________________ Milling machine operators, s e e : Machine tool oper ators________________________________________ M illwrights._____ _____________________________ 597 658 705 223 596 658 668 705 713 670 155 653 653 653 653 145 430 454 498 S e e a ls o : Foundry industry______________________ Iron and steel industry_________________ Motor vehicle and equipment manufactur ing_________________________________ Pulp, paper, and allied products industry. Mineralogists, s e e : Geologists_________________________________ Petroleum and natural gas production______ Mining engineers_______________________________ Ministers, Protestant___________________________ Missile assembly mechanics, aircraft missiles, and spacecraft___________________________________ Missile manufacturing occupations_____ _________ Missionaries, s e e : C ler g y _______________________ Mixers, baking_________________________________ Modelmakers, s e e : Instrument makers (mechanical). Molders, foundry_______________________________ S e e a l s o : Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing________ Molders’ helpers, foundry industry______________ Molding machine operators, baking industry_____ Molding machine operators, foundry-------------------Monitors, radiation, atomic energy--------------------Monotype caster operators, printing (graphic arts) _ Monotype keyboard operators, printing (graphic arts)________________________________________ Mortgage clerks, s e e : Bank clerks________________ Mothers’ helpers, s e e : Private household workers. Motor vehicle body repairmen__________________ Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing occu pations______________________________________ Motor vehicle operators, post office______________ Music directors, radio and television_____________ Music librarians, radio and television____________ Musicians and music teachers___________________ 668 704 716 736 150 723 82 48 576 572 47 606 458 672 714 667 606 672 598 520 520 615 334 474 709 822 745 745 181 848 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Page Nailers, far, apparel____________________________ Natural gas processing occupations_______________ Natural scien ces_______________________________ N avy__________________________________________ Newscasters, broadcasting---------------------------------Newspaper reporters--------------S e e a l s o : Technical writers..................... Note tellers, banking------------Nuclear physicists------------------------------ 586 730 143 833 745 231 234 616 168 S e e a ls o : Atomic energy field._____ _____________ Electronics manufacturing.................... Nuclear reactor operators, atomic energy_________ Nurse aids, s e e : Hospital attendants_____________ Nurse educators, s e e : Registered professional nurses. Nurse maids, s e e : Private household workers........... Nurses, industrial-------------Nurses, licensed practical_______________________ Nurses, licensed vocational............... Nurses, registered professional------- -------------------Nursing assistants, s e e : Hospital attendants--------N utritionists--------------- 599 658 599 352 123 334 123 97 97 122 353 146 S e e a ls o : Dietitians----------Home economists______________________ Observers, petroleum and natural gas production._ Occupational health nurses______________________ Occupational therapists_________________________ Oceanographers________________________________ Oceanographic engineers, s e e : Oceanographers____ Odd-job men, s e e : Private household workers____ Office machine operators________________________ Office machine servicemen______________________ Office nurses___________________________________ Offset pressmen, printing (graphic arts)__________ Operating engineers, construction machinery_____ Operations agents, civil aviation_________________ Operatives, s e e : Semiskilled workers, industrial___ Operators, compressor-station, natural gas process ing__________________________________________ Operators, resistance welding____________________ S e e a l s o : Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing____ _____ Operators, telephone_________ . P_______________ Optical laboratory (shop) mechanics_____________ Optical laboratory technicians___________________ Opticians, dispensing___________________________ Optometrists___________________________________ Orderlies, s e e : Hospital attendants_______________ Organic chemists_______________________________ Ornamental-iron workers, building trades________ Osteopathic physicians__________________________ Outside production inspectors, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft_______________________________ Ovenmen, baking industry______________________ Over-the-road truckdrivers______________________ Oxygen cutters_________________________________ 92 242 723 123 106 158 159 334 292 481 122 527 399 640 393 730 568 714 299 544 544 544 108 352 162 418 110 577 606 423 568 Page Packaging engineers, pulp, paper, and allied products_____________________________________ Painters and paperhangers______________________ Painters, automobile____________________________ Painters, production____________________________ S e e a l s o listing under Production Painters. Paleontologists, s e e : Geologists___ ________ Petroleum and natural gas production_______ Pantrymen and pantrywomen, restaurants_______ Paper, and allied products______________________ Paper engineers, pulp, paper, and allied products. _ Paperhangers_______ Paper inspectors, pulp, paper and allied products._ Paper machine operators, pulp, paper, and allied products_____________________________________ Paper sorters and counters, pulp, paper, and allied products____________ Paper testers, pulp, paper, and allied products____ Parcel post carriers, post office___________________ Parole officers, see: Social workers....... ............... Parts changers, electronics manufacturing________ Parts countermen, automobile_____ ______ Paste-up men, s e e : Commercial artists___________ Pastors, s e e : Clergy___ ______ Pathologists___________________________________ S e e a l s o : Agriculture_______________________ Pathologists, speech_______ Patrolmen, s e e : Policemen.............. Pattern graders, a p p a rel..._____ ________________ Patternmakers, apparel_________________________ Patternmakers, foundry industry________________ S e e a l s o : Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing_____ ______ Paying and receiving tellers, banking. ___________ Payroll tellers, banking__________ PBX installers and repairmen, telephone_________ PBX operators, s e e : Telephone operators________ Peanut growers___________ Perforator operators, petroleum and natural gas production ___________________________________ Performing arts, the____________________________ Personal maids, s e e : Private household workers__ Personnel workers______________________________ Petrographers, s e e : Geologists___________________ Petroleum engineers, s e e : Mining engineers___________________________ Petroleum and natural gas production_______ Petroleum refining._________ Petroleum geologists____________________________ S e e a l s o : Petroleum and natural gas produc tion_____________________________________ Petrologists, s e e : Geologists_______ Petroleum and natural gas production and process ing, occupations i n __________________________ Petroleum refining______________________________ Pharmacists___________________________________ Pharmacologists________________________________ Photoengravers, printing (graphic a rts)__________ Photogrammetric surveyors_____________________ 737 403 535 561 150 723 777 733 737 403 737 735 735 737 825 269 662 312 187 47 146 804 128 343 583 583 670 714 616 616 790 299 799 725 175 334 39 150 82 723 729 150 722 150 720 727 112 146 523 272 849 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Page Pho tographers_________________________________ S e e a l s o listing under Cameramen, printing (graphic arts). Photographers, television_______________________ Photo-journalists, s e e : Photographers____________ Phototypesetting machine operators, printing (graphic arts)_______________________________ Physical anthropologists________________________ Physical chemists______________________________ Physical geographers___________________________ Physical meteorologists___________ Physical oceanographers________________________ Physical sciences______________________________ Physical therapists_____________________________ Physicians_____________________________________ Physicists_____________________________________ 255 751 256 520 197 162 201 155 159 162 115 117 168 S e e a ls o : Atomic energy field____________________ Electronics manufacturing______________ Physicists, health, atomic energy________________ Physicists, radiological, atomic energy___________ Physiologists__________________________________ Phytopathologists, plant pathologists____________ Picklers, forge shop____________________________ Piercer machine operators, iron and steel_________ Pilots and copilots, civil aviation________________ Pinchasers, s e e : Automatic bowling machine mechanics___________________________________ Pinsetting machine mechanics, s e e : Automatic bowl ing machine mechanics_______________________ Pipefitters_____________________________________ 598 658 598 598 262 146 445 704 624 471 471 408 S e e a ls o : Industrial chemical industry____________ Iron and steel industry________________ Motor vehicle and equipment manufac turing---------------------------------------------Petroleum refining_____________________ Pulp, paper, and allied products industry, Placement directors, s e e : College placement offi cers_________________________________________ Placement officers, s e e : College placement officers. Plainclothesmen, s e e : Policemen_________________ Plane-table operators, petroleum and natural gas production__________________________________ Planners, urban________________________________ Plant and animal husbandry specialists, s e e : Agri culture______________________________________ Plant pathologists______________________________ Plasterers_______________________ S e e a l s o : Railroad bridge and building workers. Platemakers, printing (graphic arts)_____________ Platers, electroplaters__________________________ 688 704 716 728 736 241 240 343 723 274 804 145 406 776 529 549 S e e a ls o : Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufac turing--------------------------------------------Motor vehicle and equipment manufac turing--------------------------------------------Plumbers and pipefitters_______________________ S e e a l s o : Railroad bridge and building workers. Podiatrists.......... .................................. 576 Page Policemen and policewomen____________________ Policy change clerks, insurance__________________ Policy writers, insurance________________________ Polishers, motor vehicle and equipment manufac turing----------------------------------------------------------Political geographers___________________________ Political scientists______________________________ Portable equipment operators, s e e : Track workers, railroad_____________________________________ Porters, baggage, hotel_________________________ Porters, restaurant_____________________________ Portrait photographers_________________________ Postage and mailing equipment servicemen______ Postal clerks___________________________________ Postal inspectors_______________________________ Posting machine operators, s e e : Bank clerks_____ Postmasters___________________________________ Post office occupations . Poultry farmers________________________________ Pourers, s e e : Foundry industry__________________________ Iron and steel industry_____________________ Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing-_ Power brake operators, aircraft, missiles, and space craft------------------------------------------------------------Power hammer operators, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft___________________________________ Power linemen, electric power___________________ Powerplant installers, aircraft, missiles, and space craft________________________________________ Powerplant mechanics, civil aviation_____________ Powerplant occupations, electric power___________ Power shear operators, aircraft, missiles, and space craft ________________________________________ Power truck operators__________________________ Practical nurses________________________________ Pressers, apparel_______________________________ Press feeders, printing (graphic a r t s ) ____________ Pressing occupations, a p p a r e l.._________________ Pressmen, printing (graphic arts)________________ Press photographers____________________________ Press operators, forge shop______________________ Priests, Roman Catholic________________________ Printer-slotter operators, pulp, paper, and allied products____________________________________ Printers, printing (graphic arts)_________________ Printing (graphic arts) occupations_______________ Printing pressmen and assistants, printing (graphic arts)------------------------------------------------------------Private duty nurses____________________________ Private household workers______________________ Probation and parole officers, s e e : Social workers. _ Producer-directors, program, radio and television.. Production managers, advertising________________ Production painters____________________________ 342 694 694 714 201 205 774 679 777 255 484 824 818 615 817 817 798 668 702 714 575 575 650 577 632 646 575 559 97 585 527 586 526 256 444 52 736 523 514 526 122 334 269 744 32 561 S e e a ls o : 714 408 776 120 Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufac turing---------------------------------------------Motor vehicle and equipment manufac turing---------------------------------------------Railroad bridge and building workers___ 576 714 776 850 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Page Production planners, aircraft, missiles, and space craft________________________________________ Production technicians, s e e : Industrial engineering technicians____________________________________ Professional, managerial, and related occupations. Professional occupations, s e e : Professional, man agerial, and related occupations_______________ Professors, college______________________________ Professors, university__________________________ Profile cutting torch operators, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft________________ .______________ Program assistants, radio and television__________ Program directors, radio and television__________ Program producer-directors, radio and television... Programers, electronic computer_________________ See a l s o : Insurance business__________________ Proof machine operators, s e e : Bank clerks________ Proofers, printing (graphic arts)__________________ Proofreaders, printing (graphic arts)_______________ Property and liability insurance agents and brokers.. Prospecting drillers, petroleum and natural gas production____________________________________ Prospecting geophysicists_________________________ Protective service occupations__________________ Protestant clergymen___________________________ Psychiatric aids, s e e : Hospital attendants________ Psychiatric social workers________________________ Psychologists____________________________________ S e e a l s o : Counseling_______________________ Public affairs directors, s e e : Radio and television.. Public health nurses_____________________________ Public librarians_________________________________ Public health sanitarians, s e e : Sanitarians_________ Public relations workers________________________ Public stenographers_____________________________ Pulp, paper, and allied products industry, occupa tions in the___________________________________ Pulp testers, pulp, paper, and allied products_____ Pumpers, petroleum and natural gas production__ Pumpmen, petroleum refining___________________ Punch press operators, s e e : Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing. Electronics manufacturing__________________ Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing.. Purchasing agents______________________________ Rabbis________________________________________ Rack clerks, hotel_______________________________ Radar technicians, s e e : Electronics technicians___ Radiation monitors, atomic energy______________ Radio and television announcers__________________ Radio and television broadcasting occupations____ Radiographers, atomic energy_____________________ Radioisotope-production operators, atomic energy.. Radiological physicists, atomic energy___________ Radio operators, ground, civil aviation___________ Radio service technicians_________________________ Railroad bridge and building workers______________ Railroad clerks__________________________________ Railroad conductors_____________________________ 575 223 22 22 216 216 575 744 744 744 258 694 614 523 519 322 723 152 338 48 353 269 262 61 744 123 251 126 41 282 733 737 725 728 575 660 714 43 50 681 223 598 749 742 599 600 598 638 500 776 769 764 Page Railroad occupations___________________________ Ranchers______________________________________ Range conservationists, s e e : Range managers____ Range managers_______________________________ Range scientists, s e e : Range managers___________ Reactor engineers, atomic energy________________ Reactor technicians, atomic energy______________ Real estate salesmen and brokers________________ Realtors_______________________________________ Receiving clerks, s e e : Shipping and receiving clerks. Receiving inspectors, aircraft, missiles, and space craft________________________________________ Receiving tellers, banking______________________ Receptionists__________________________________ Reconcilement clerks, s e e : Bank clerks___________ Recording clerks, s e e : Bank clerks_______________ Recording technicians, radio and telev isio n .______ Recreation therapists, s e e : Recreation workers___ Recreation workers____ ________________________ Reference librarians____________________________ Refrigeration mechanics________________________ Regional geographers___________________________ Regional planners______________________________ Registered professional nurses___________________ Registered representatives, see: Securities salesmen. Registered technologists, see: Medical technologists. Rehabilitation counselors_______________________ Rehabilitation workers, see: Social workers_______ Reinforcing-iron workers, building trades_________ Renderers, see: Commercial artists_______________ Repairmen, see: Automobile body repairmen________________ Central office repairmen, telephone__________ Industrial machinery repairmen_____________ Instrument repairmen______________________ Jewelry repairmen_________________________ Telephone and PBX repairmen______________ Watch repairmen__________________________ S e e a l s o listings under Mechanics and under Servicemen. Reporters, newspaper___________________________ Reporting stenographers________________________ Research directors, advertising__________________ Research workers, agricultural___________________ Research workers, marketing____________________ Reservation agents and clerks, civil aviation_____ Reservation clerks, hotel________________________ Resilient floor layers, s e e : Floor covering installers. Resistance-welding operators____________________ S e e a l s o : Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing_______________ Restaurant industry_________________________ Retail salesmen and saleswomen_________ Rewrite men, s e e : Newspaper reporters__ ________ Rig builders, petroleum and natural gas production Riggers and machine movers, building trades_____ Riveters, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft________ Rocket assembly mechanics, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft___________________________________ Rodmen, petroleum and natural gas production___ 755 797 58 58 58 595 595 324 325 302 577 616 286 615 615 752 265 265 252 465 201 274 122 328 101 64 269 419 187 474 784 491 492 555 789 510 231 282 32 804 36 640 681 389 568 714 777 306 231 723 418 576 576 723 851 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Page Rodmen, s e e : Reinforcing-iron workers__________ Rodmen, s e e : Surveyors________________________ Rollers, iron and steel---------------------------------------Rolling mill attendants, iron and steel___________ Roll turners, iron and steel______________________ Roman Catholic priests_________________________ Roofers-----------------------------------------------------------Room and desk clerks, hotel____________________ Rotary drillers, petroleum and natural gas produc tion_________________________________________ Rotary floormen, petroleum and natural gas produc tion_________________________________________ Roughnecks, petroleum and natural gas produc tion_________________________________________ Roustabouts, petroleum and natural gas produc tion_________________________________________ Routemen_____________________________________ S e e a l s o : Baking industry__________________ Routers, printing (graphic a r t s ) .._______________ Route salesmen, s e e : Routemen_________________ Rural carriers, post office_______________________ Rural sociologists______________________________ S e e a l s o : A rgiculture...-------- --------------------Safety technicians, s e e : Engineering and science technicians__________________________________ Sailors, s e e : N avy______________________________ Sales clerk, retail store_________________________ Sales engineer, s e e : Manufacturers’ salesmen_____ Sales managers, s e e : Hotels____________________________________ Radio and television broadcasting__________ Salesmen and saleswomen, s e e : Automobile parts countermen_______________ Automobile salesmen_______________________ Automobile service advisors________________ Insurance agents and brokers_______________ Manufacturers’ salesmen___________________ Radio and television_______________________ Real estate salesmen and brokers____________ Salesmen and saleswomen in retail stores____ Salesmen in wholesale trade________________ Securities salesmen_________________________ Sales occupations______________________________ Sample stitchers, apparel_______________________ Sample-taker operators, petroleum and natural gas production_______________________________ Sandblasters, forge shop________________________ Sandblasters, foundry__________________________ Sand mixers, foundry___________________________ Sanitarians__________________________ Savings tellers, banking________________________ Scenic designers, television______________________ S e e a ls o : Interior designers and decorators__ School counselors______________________________ School librarians_______________________________ School recreation workers_______________________ School social workers___________________________ Science aids___________________________________ Science information specialists, s e e : Librarians___ Science technicians____________________ 419 272 702 703 704 52 411 681 724 724 724 724 430 608 523 430 822 207 804 222 833 306 319 684 746 312 309 314 322 319 746 324 306 317 327 305 583 725 445 668 667 125 616 745 192 61 252 265 269 220 252 220 Page Scientists, biological____________________________ Scientists, earth________________________________ Scientists, natural______________________________ Scientists, physical_____________________________ Scientists, soil__________________________________ Scouts, petroleum and natural gas production____ Sealers, electronics manufacturing_______________ Secondary school teachers______________________ Secretaries_____________________________________ Securities salesmen_____________________________ Securities tellers, banking_______________________ Sedimentologists, s e e : Geologists_______________ _ Seismologists, s e e : Geophysicists________________ Semiskilled workers, industrial__________________ Service advisors, s e e : Automobile service advisors, Service assistants, telephone____________________ Service salesmen, s e e : Automobile service advisors, Service writers, see: Automobile service advisors._ Servicemen, s e e : Appliance servicemen______________________ Business machine servicemen_______________ Television and radio service technicians_____ Service occupations____________________________ Service station attendants, s e e : Gasoline service sta tion attendants______________________________ Service station managers, s e e : Gasoline service sta tion managers_______________________________ Service station mechanic-attendants_____________ Setup men (machine tools)______________________ Sewers, hand; apparel__________________________ Sewing machine operators, s e e : Apparel industry__________________________ Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing.. Sewing room occupations, apparel_______________ Shakeout men, s e e : Foundry industry__________________________ Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing.. Shapers, apparel_______________________________ Shearmen, iron and steel________________________ Shear operators, electronics manufacturing_______ Sheet-metal workers____________________________ See 143 149 143 162 801 723 661 214 282 327 616 150 152 363 314 299 314 314 468 481 500 331 551 551 551 460 584 584 714 584 668 714 584 703 660 413 a ls o : Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manu facturing____________________________ Electronics manufacturing______________ Railroad shop trades___________________ Shipping and receiving clerks___________________ Shooters, petroleum and natural gas production__ Shop trades, railroad___________________________ Shotblasters, forge shop________________________ Shotblasters, foundry___________________________ Signal department workers, railroad_____________ Signal maintainers, ra ilro a d .___________________ Signalmen, railroad____________________________ Silk screen operators, electronics manufacturing__ Singers and singing teachers____________________ Skilled and other manual occ ipations___________ Skilled workers________________________________ Skipmen, iron and steel_________________________ Slaggers, iron and steel____________ ____________ 575 660 771 302 723 771 445 668 773 773 773 660 184 360 361 701 701 852 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Page Page Slate roofers, building trades____________________ Slicing machine operators, baking_______________ Soaking pit cranemen, iron and s t e e l____________ Social caseworkers_____________________________ Social psychologists____________________________ Social sciences________________________________ Social secretaries_______________________________ Social workers_________________________________ Sociologists____________________________________ Sociologists, rural, s e e : Agriculture_______________ Soil conservationists____________________________ Soil scientists---------------------------------------------------Soldiers, s e e : Army_____________________________ Sorters, s e e : Bank clerks________________________ Sorting machine operators______________________ Sound effects technicians, radio and television____ Spacecraft manufacturing occupations___________ Special delivery carriers, post office--------------------Specialty farm operators-----------------------------------Specifications writers, s e e : Electronics manufactur ing_________________________________________ Speech pathologists^___________________________ Sprayers, motor vehicle and equipment manufac turing_______________________________________ Spreaders, apparel industry_____________________ Stage managers, radio and television_____________ Star route carriers, post office----------------------------State and local government occupations__________ Station agents, civil aviation------------------------------Station agents, railroad_________________________ Station installers, telephone_____________________ Stationary engineers____________________________ S e e a l s o : Pulp, paper, and allied products industry________________________________ Stationary firemen (boiler)______________________ Statisticians___________________________________ 411 607 702 268 262 196 282 268 207 804 802 801 832 614 293 752 572 817 799 658 128 714 584 745 818 827 640 768 786 562 736 565 137 S e e a ls o : Actuaries_____________________________ Electronics manufacturing______________ Mathematicians_______________________ Steamfitters, s e e : Plumbers and pipefitters_______ Steel industry occupations______________________ Steel pourers, iron and steel_____________________ Stenographers and secretaries___________________ Stereotypers, printing (graphic arts)_____________ Stewardesses, civil aviation_____________________ Stillmen, petroleum refining_____________________ Stillmen, gas plant, natural gas processing_______ Stock chasers, motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing____________________________________ Stock clerks, baking____________________________ Stock clerks, motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing____________________________________ Stock house larrymen, iron and steel_____________ Stock house men, iron and steel_________________ Stonehands, printing (graphic arts)---------------------Stonem asons__________________________________ Stove tenders, iron and steel____________________ Stratigraphers, s e e : Geologists__________________ 140 658 134 408 698 702 281 524 630 728 730 715 608 715 701 701 519 416 701 150 Stripper-cranemen, iron and steel________________ Strippers, printing (graphic arts)_________ Structural-, ornamental-, and reinforcing-iron workers, riggers, and machine workers_________ Studio supervisors, radio and television.__________ Substation operators, electric power______________ Supercalendar operators, pulp, paper, and allied products____________________________________ Surfacers, optical goods_________________________ Surveyors_____________________________________ Survey statisticians_____________________________ Switchboard operators, electric power______________ Switchboard operators, telephone__________________ Switchers, petroleum and natural gas production ._ Switchmen, railroad____________________________ Switchmen, telephone___________________________ Synoptic meteorologists_______________ 702 528 417 745 650 735 545 272 138 647 299 725 766 784 155 Tabulating machine operators_____________________ 293 Tailoring occupations, apparel___________________ 585 Tailors, apparel________________________________ 585 Tape librarians, s e e : Electronic computer operating personnel____________________________________ 297 Tape perforating machine operators, printing (graphic arts)_________________________________ 519 Tape perforator typists, s e e : Typists_____________ 284 Tape-to-eard converter operators, s e e : Electronic computer operating personnel___________________ 296 Taxi drivers___________________________________ 439 Teachers, college and university___________________ 216 Teachers, dancing________________________________ 178 Teachers, drama______________________________ ____ 175 Teachers, high school____________________________ 214 Teachers, junior high school, s e e : Secondary school teachers_____________________________________ 214 Teachers, kindergarten and elementary school-----211 Teachers, music__________________________________ 181 Teachers, secondary school. _____________________ 214 Teachers, singing________________________________ 184 Teaching______________________________________ 210 281 Technical stenographers__________________________ Technical illustrators, s e e : Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufactur ing_____________________________________ 575 Electronics manufacturing__________________ 658 Technical writers_______________________________ 234 S e e a ls o : Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manu facturing__________________ _•-----------575 Electronics manufacturing________________ 658 Newspaper reporters_____________________ 231 Technician occupations___________________________ 220 Technicians, broadcasting, radio and television___ 751 Technicians, dental laboratory__________________ 87 Technicians, engineering and science_______________ 220 S e e a ls o : Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manu facturing_____________________________ 575 853 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Page Technicians, engineering and science—Continued S e e a l s o —Continued Atomic energy field____________________ Dispensing opticians and optical labora tory mechanics______________________ Electronics manufacturing______________ Foundry industry______________________ Industrial chemical industry____________ Iron and steel industry_________________ Petroleum refining_____________________ Pulp, paper, and allied products industry.,. Technicians, forestry, s e e : Forestry aids__________ Technicians, medical X-ray_____________________ Technicians, optical laboratory__________________ Technicians, sound effects, radio and television._ Technicians, television and radio service________ Technologists, medical_________________________ Tectonophysicists, s e e : Geophysicists____________ Telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen, railroad. Telephone and PBX installers and repairmen___ Telephone central office craftsmen_______________ Telephone central office equipment installers_____ Telephone craftsmen___________________________ Telephone industry occupations_________________ Telephone installers and repairmen______________ Telephone linemen and cable splicers____________ Telephone operators____________________________ Telephone repairmen___________________________ Telephone servicemen__________________________ Telephoners, railroad___________________________ Teletypists, civil aviation_______________________ Television announcers__________________________ Television broadcasting o ccu p ation s..------- --------Television and radio service technicians__________ Tellers, banking________________________________ Terrazzo workers, building trades_______________ Testboardmen, telephone_______________________ Testers, paper, s e e : Inspectors, pulp, paper, and allied products_______________________________ Therapeutic d ietitian s_________________________ Therapists, occupational. . . _____________________ Therapists, physical____________________________ Therapists, recreation, s e e : Recreation workers___ Thread trimmers and cleaners, apparel___________ Ticket agents, civil aviation____________________ Ticket sellers, see: Cashiers_____________________ Tile roofers, building trades_____________________ Tile setters, building trades_____________________ Time salesmen, radio and television_____________ Tinners, electronics manufacturing______________ Tobacco growers_______________________________ Tool and die makers___________________________ 596 544 658 668 689 705 729 737 56 104 544 752 500 101 152 767 789 784 786 784 780 789 787 299 790 790 767 638 749 742 500 616 397 784 737 92 106 115 265 585 640 289 411 397 746 660 799 456 S e e a ls o : Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manu facturing___________________________ Electronics manufacturing______________ Iron and steel industry_________________ Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing___________________________ Pulp, paper, and allied products industry. 576 660 704 713 736 Page 223 660 724 767 228 774 774 640 637 637 34 744 640 767 756 766 284 825 615 Tool designers, s e e : Mechanical technicians_____ Toolmakers, electronics manufacturing___________ Tool pushers, petroleum and natural gas production _ Towermen, railroad____________________________ Tracers, s e e : Draftsmen________________________ Trackmen, railroad_____________________________ Track workers, railroad_________________________ Traffic agents and clerks, civil aviation__________ Traffic controllers, airport______________________ Traffic controllers, air-route_____________________ Traffic managers, industrial_____________________ Traffic managers, radio and television____________ Traffic representatives, civil aviation_____________ Train directors, railroad________________________ Train dispatchers______________________________ Trainmen, s e e : Brake men, railroad______________ Transcribing machine operators, s e e : Typists_____ Transfer clerks, post office______________________ Transit clerks, s e e : Bank clerks_________________ Transmission and distribution occupations, electric power_______________________________________ Transmitter technicians, radio and television_____ Treaters, s e e : Petroleum and natural gas production________ Petroleum refining_________________________ Trimmers, apparel_____________________________ Trimmers, automobile (automobile upholsterers). _ Trimmers, motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing____________________________________ Trimmers, forge shop___________________________ Troublemen, electric power_____________________ Truckdrivers, local_____________________________ Truckdrivers, motor vehicle operators, post office.. Truckdrivers, over-the-road_____________________ Truck mechanics_______________________________ Trust bookkeepers, s e e : Bank clerks_____________ Trust investment clerks, s e e : Bank clerks________ Trust officers, banking__________________________ Tube benders, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft___ Tumbler operators, foundry_____________________ Tune-up mechanics, s e e : Automobile mechanics__ Turbine operators, electric power________________ Typesetters, hand, printing (graphic arts)________ Typesetting machine operators, printing (graphic arts)________________________________________ Typewriter servicemen_________________________ Typists_______________________________________ S e e a l s o : Insurance clerks____________ ______ Typographic surveyors_________________________ 519 482 284 694 272 Understudies, s e e : Actors and actresses__________ Underwriters, insurance________________________ United States Government occupations__________ University librarians___________________________ University professors___________________________ University teachers_____________________________ Unskilled workers, industrial____________________ Upsetter operators, forge sh op __________________ Urban geographers_____________________________ Urban planners________________________________ 175 694 808 252 216 216 365 444 201 274 649 752 725 728 585 537 714 445 650 427 822 423 504 615 615 618 576 668 477 646 520 854 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Page Valets, s e e : Private household workers____________ 335 Vending machine mechanics_____________________ 507 Vending machine routemen, s e e : Routemen________ 431 Veterinarians____________________________________ 130 Video-tape recording technicians, television________ 752 Vocational agriculture teachers, s e e : A griculture... 805 Vocational counselors___________________________ 67 Vocational nurses______________________________ 97 Waiters and waitresses_________________________ Waste disposal men, atomic energy________________ Waste-treatment operators, atomic energy________ Watch engineers, electric power_________________ Watchmakers---------------------------------------------------Watch repairmen________________________________ Weather forecasters, s e e : Meteorologists_________ Welders and oxygen cutters------------------------------ 350 599 599 648 510 510 155 567 S e e a ls o : Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manu facturing____________________________ Electronics manufacturing______________ Iron and steel industry_________________ Natural gas processing_________________ Petroleum refining_____________________ Welders, electric-arc____________________________ S e e a l s o : Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing_________________________________ 576 660 705 730 728 567 714 Page Welders, gas___________________________________ S e e a l s o : Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing________________________________ Welding operators, resistance____________________ S e e a l s o : Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing________________________________ Well pullers, petroleum and natural gas production. Wheat farmers_________________________________ Wholesale salesmen_____________________________ Window clerks, post office_______________________ Wire chiefs, railroad____________________________ Wire drawers, iron and steel_____________________ Wood patternmakers, foundry___________________ Work distributors, apparel______________________ Wrapping machine operators, baking____________ Writers, editorial, s e e : Newspaper reporters______ Writers, technical______________________________ S e e a l s o listing under Technical writers. Writing occupations____________________________ 567 714 568 714 725 798 317 824 767 704 670 585 607 232 575 231 X-ray technicians, medical______________________ 104 Yard foremen, railroad__________________________ 764 Zoologists_____________________________________ 145 BLS Occupational Outlook Service (or Counselors To help the professional community concerned with youth keep up to date on occu pational developments that have significant implications for young people, and to assist counselors in making occupational information available to their clients, the Bureau of Labor Statistics supplements the Occupational Outlook Handbook with the following publications: O C C U P A T IO N A L O U T L O O K Q U A R T E R L Y : Handbook users will want to consult the Occupational Outlook Quarterly to make sure they have up-to-date, authoritative occupational information between editions of the Handbook. Published four times during each school year, the Quarterly presents the latest occupational outlook studies by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and interprets the guidance implications of Government and other authoritative research in the economic, educational, demographic, and technological fields. Annual subscriptions for the Occupational Outlook Quarterly are $1.25 domestic, $1.75 foreign; single copies are 35 cents each. Order from Superintendent of Documents, Wash ington, D.C., 20402. O C C U P A T IO N A L O U T L O O K REPO RT SERIES: The reports in the Handbook are repro duced in this series of reprints, each of which covers a single occupation, an industry, or a group of related occupations. The reprints enable counselors to make occupational information available to more students interested in specific careers. Teachers can use these reports as motivational aids in relating school subjects to earning a living. Librarians who keep a file of occupational informa tion will find these reprints helpful in extending their resources to greater num bers of young people. Single reprints or a full set of 115 reprints can be ordered. A list of reprints, with prices, is available from the Occupational Outlook Service, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C., 20212. FREE O C C U P A T IO N A L O U T L O O K P U B LIC A T IO N S : These include briefs, wall charts, and reprints of articles from the Quarterly. Occupational outlook briefs describe the employment outlook in each of the broad occupational groups. Wall charts emphasize graphically the salient facts about various occupations and indus tries. Reprints from the Quarterly deal with the employment outlook in new occupational areas, the impact of technological changes, and other subjects of interest to young people and counselors and teachers. Free publications are announced in the Quarterly, and many of these are distributed automatically to schools, organizations, and individuals on the occupational outlook mailing list. Write to the Occupational Outlook Service, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C., 20212, to request the List of Free Occupational Outlook Publications and to have your name placed on the mailing list. 855 856 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK C O U N S E L O R ’S G U ID E T O O C C U P A T IO N A L A N D O T H E R M A N P O W E R IN F O R M A T IO N , A N A N N O T A T E D B IB L IO G R A P H Y O F SELE C TE D G O V E R N M E N T P U B L IC A TIO N S : This bibliography, as the title suggests, lists the major occupational and other manpower publications of Federal and State government agencies that will be useful to counselors and others interested in trends and developments that have implications for career decisions. The bulletin, No. 1421, is available from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 20402; 50 cents a copy. Other BLS Publications Useful to Counselors Information on employment, unemployment, occupation trends, earnings, and other labor force developments can be obtained from the following publications: E M P L O Y M E N T A N D E A R N IN G S : Monthly report featuring statistics on employment, earnings, hours of work, and labor turnover by industry for the Nation, and by industry division for each State and 151 metropolitan areas. Also contains statistical tables for the country as a whole developed from the Current Popula tion Survey appearing in the Monthly Report on the Labor Force (see following paragraph), as well as additional detail on the characteristics of the current labor force. Statistics for earlier years are contained in Employment and Earnings Statistics for the United States (BLS Bulletin 1312-2), price $3.50 and Employment and Earnings Statistics for States and Areas (BLS Bulletin 1370-1), price $3.75. M O N T H L Y REPO RT O N TH E L A B O R FO RCE: Monthly release analyzing the current employment and unemployment situation. Contains summary of national data on size and characteristics of the labor force and unemployment; national data on employment, hours, and earnings of employees on payrolls of nonfarm estab lishments; and State and area data for insured unemployment. This publica tion is available without charge upon written request to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C., 20212. S P E C IA L L A B O R FO R C E REPORTS: Reports based on special surveys of the labor force are issued several times a year. They include statistics and analysis of selected characteristics of the labor force, such as educational attainment, employment of school dropouts and recent high school graduates, work experience during the year, and marital and family status. Published in the Monthly Labor Review, which may be available in your school library, these reports are also available (as long as the supply lasts) without charge, upon written request to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S, Department of Labor, Washington, D.C., 20212 . O C C U P A T IO N A L W A G E S U R V E Y S: These reports include figures on average earnings and employment in selected occupations and in major industries and labor market areas. Weekly working hours for some groups of workers and customary practices regarding pensions, vacations, holidays, and sick leave are also re ported. Occupational Wage Surveys are listed in the Directory of Cummunity Wage Surveys which may be obtained from the Bureau of Labor Statistic, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C., 20212. You can write BLS regional offices for free releases on individual city surveys. 857 858 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK U N IO N W A G E S C A L E S : Annual releases on union scales cover wages and hours of work in 69 major cities in the printing industry and 68 major cities in the construc tion, local transit, and local trucking industries. Quarterly releases on surveys of seven major building trades in 100 cities cover averages and increases in wage scales by trade, and wage trends for the industry as a whole. These re leases are available from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C., 20212, or any of the regional offices. Priced publications mentioned above can be ordered from the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C., 20402. Both priced and free publications are available (as long as the supply lasts) from the Regional Offices of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, at the following addresses: 450 Golden Gate Ave., Box 36017, San Francisco, Calif., 94102. 1371 Peachtree St. NE, Suite 540, Atlanta, Ga., 30309. 219 South Dearborn St., Chicago, 111., 60604. 18 Oliver St., Boston, Mass., 02110. 341 Ninth Ave., New York, N.Y., 10001. 1365 Ontario St., Room 740, Cleveland, Ohio, 44114. U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1 9 6 5 O — 7 7 8 -3 1 6 Do you need reprints of O ccu pation al Outlook H an dbook statements? Among those who seek the Handbook career information in the form of convenient pamphlets are— Stu d e n ts interested in particular fields of work. C o u n se lo rs a n d lib ra ria n s who want to "stretch" their Handbooks. Te a ch e rs who want to relate their subjects to making one's way in the world. In d u stry , la b o r, or p ro fe ssio n a l o rg a n iza tio n s that want authoritative and handy publications to answer public inquiries about careers. The entire Handbook has been reprinted in the Occupational Outlook Report Series. You may order individual reprints or full sets of 115 reprints. (See next page for a complete listing of titles and prices.) You may detach this sheet and use it as an order form. Please fill out both the order form and mailing label, enclose payment, and send to the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C. 20402, or to the Bureau of Labor Statistics regional office nearest you. Following are the addresses of the regional offices: 341 Ninth Ave. New York, N.Y. 10001 1365 Ontario St. Cleveland, Ohio 44114 219 S. Dearborn St. Chicago, 111. 60604 1371 Peachtree St., NE Atlanta, Ga. 30309 18 Oliver St. Boston, Mass. 02110 450 Golden Gate Ave. Box 36017 San Francisco, Calif. 94102 ORDER FORM Enclosed find $__________ (check, money order, or Superintendent of Documents coupons. Please send me: Do not send postage stamps). __________ copies of Reports N o .___________ (Please identify by number from the other side.) __________ sets of 115 Reports at $9.65 per set (25-percent discount on orders of 100 or more of any single publication.) FOR USE OF SUPT. DOCS. ! . . . . Enclosed........................ To be mailed . . . . later............................... Name.................................... Street address...................... City, State, and ZIP Code U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE DIVISION OF PUBLIC DOCUMENTS WASHINGTON, D.C. 20402 Refund........................... Coupon refund.............. Postage.......................... P E N A L T Y F O R P R I V A T E U S E T O A V O ID P A Y M E N T O F P O S TA G E , *300 Name. O FFIC IA L BUSINESS RETURN AFTER 5 DAYS . . . . Subscription.................. Street address City, State, and ZIP Code O CCUPATIONAL O UTLO O K REPORT SERIES Bulletin N o. Price 1450-A A L o o k a t T o m o r r o w ’s J o b s -------- ------------------------------------------ . 10 1450-1 1450-2 A c c o u n t a n t s ___________________________________________________ A d v e r tis in g , M a r k e t R e se a r c h , a n d P u b lic R e la tio n s .0 5 1450-13 1450-14 1450-15 W o r k e r s .---------------------------------------------------------.1 0 A ir -C o n d itio n in g a n d R e fr ig e r a tio n M e c h a n ic s ---------------------. 05 A p p lia n c e S e r v ic e m e n --------------------------------------------------------------. 05 A r c h it e c t s ______________________________________________________ . 05 A u t o m o t iv e S e r v ic e a n d S a le s O c c u p a tio n s : A u to m o b ile M e c h a n ic s , B o d y R e p a ir m e n , G a s S t a t io n A t t e n d a n t s , P a in te r s , P a r ts C o u n te r m e n , S a le s m e n , S e r v ic e A d v iso r s, T r u c k a n d B u s M e c h a n ic s , U p h o ls t e r e r s .- - ...................................... 20 .0 5 B a r b e r s, C o s m e to lo g is ts _______________________________________ B io lo g ic a l S c ie n t is t s --------------------------------------------- --------------------.1 0 .0 5 B o ile r m a k in g O c c u p a tio n s ------------ -------- --------- -----------------------B o o k k e e p in g W o r k e r s, O ffice M a c h in e O p e r a to r s____________ . 10 B o w lin g -M a c h in e M e c h a n ic s -------- ------------------------------------------.0 5 B r ic k la y e r s, S to n e m a so n s , M a r b le S e tte r s , T ile S e tte r s, T erra zzo W o r k e r s----------------------------------------------------------------. 15 B u sin e s s M a c h in e S e r v ic e m e n -------- -----------------------------T-------.1 0 . 15 C a r p e n te r s , P a in te r s , P a p e r h a n g e r s, G la z ie r s________________ C e m e n t M a s o n s , P la ste r e r s , L a th e r s _________________________ . 15 1450-16 1450-17 1450-18 C a s h ie r s ________________________________________________________ C h ir o p r a c to r s__________________________________________________ C le r g y : P r o te s ta n t C le r g y m e n , R a b b is , R o m a n C a th o lic .0 5 .0 5 P r ie s t s _______________________________________________________ C o m m e r c ia l A r tis ts , I n d u s tr ia l D e s ig n e r s , In te r io r D e s ig n e r s a n d D e c o r a to r s ______________________________________________ C o n s e r v a tio n O c c u p a tio n s : F o r e ste r s, F o r e str y A id s , R a n g e . 10 M a n a g e r s___________________________________________________ C o u n s e lin g a n d P la c e m e n t: C o lle g e P la c e m e n t O fficers, S c h o o l, R e h a b ilit a t io n , a n d V o c a tio n a l C o u n s e lo r s _______ D e n t a l H y g i e n is t s ____________________________________ ____ ____ D e n t a l L a b o r a to r y T e c h n ic ia n s ----------------------------------------------D e n t is t s ________________________________________________________ D ie s e l M e c h a n ic s ______________________________________________ D ie t i t ia n s ______________________________________________________ D is p e n s in g O p tic ia n s, O p tic a l L a b o r a to r y M e c h a n ic s ______ D r iv in g O c c u p a tio n s : T r u c k , B u s , a n d T a x i D r iv e r s; R o u t e m e n ------------------------------------ ----------------------------------------E a r th S c ie n tis ts : G e o lo g is ts , G e o p h y s ic is ts , M e te o r o lo g ists , O c e a n o g r a p h e r s _____________________________________________ . 10 1450-3 1450-4 1450-5 1450-6 1450-7 1450-8 1450-9 1450-10 1450-11 1450-12 1450-19 1450-20 1450-21 1450-22 1450-23 1450-24 1450-25 1450-26 1450-27 1450-28 1450-29 1450-30 1450-31 1450-32 . 10 . 10 .0 5 .0 5 .0 5 .0 5 .0 5 .0 5 . 10 1450-34 1450-35 1450-36 1450-37 1450-38 1450-39 1450-40 1450-41 1450-42 1450-43 L a n d sc a p e A r c h it e c t s _________________________________________ L a w y e r s ___ ______ _____________________________________________ .0 5 .0 5 1450-44 L ib r a r i a n s .._________ .0 5 1450-45 M a c h in in g O c c u p a tio n s : I n s tr u m e n t M a k e r s, M a c h in is t s , M a c h in e T o o l O p er a to rs, T o o l a n d D ie M a k e r s, S e tu p M e n , L a y o u t M e n __________________________________________ M a in te n a n c e E le c tr ic ia n s , I n d u s tr ia l M a c h in e r y R e p a ir m e n , M illw r ig h t s _________________________________________________ . 15 . 10 1450-48 1450-49 M a th e m a tic s a n d R e la t e d F ie ld s : M a t h e m a t ic ia n s , S t a t is t i c ia n s , A c t u a r ie s _____________________________________________ M e d ic a l R e c o r d L ib r a r ia n s ___________________________________ M e d ic a l T e c h n o lo g is t s ________________________________________ . 10 . 05 . 05 1450-50 1450-51 M e d ic a l X - R a y T e c h n ic ia n s _________________________________ N e w s p a p e r R e p o r te r s _________________________________________ .0 5 . 05 1450-52 O c c u p a tio n a l T h e r a p is ts , P h y s ic a l T h e r a p is t s ______________ . 05 1450-46 1450-47 Bulletin 1450 Occupational Outlook Handbook .1 0 . 10 . io . 10 .0 5 . 10 . 10 . 10 .0 5 .0 5 .0 5 .1 0 Price 1450-53 1450-54 O p e r a tin g E n g in e e r s (C o n s tr u c tio n M a c h in e r y O p e r a t o r ) .. O p to m e tr is ts ___________________________________________________ . 10 . 05 1450-55 O s te o p a th ic P h y s ic i a n s ________________________________________ .0 5 1450-56 1450-57 1450-58 1450-59 1450-60 1450-61 1450-62 P e r fo r m in g A rts: A c to r s , D a n c e r s , M u s ic ia n s , S in g e r s ______ P e r s o n n e l W o r k e r s _____________________________________________ P h a r m a c is t s ____________________________________________________ P h o to g r a p h e r s __________________________________________________ P lu m b e r s a n d P ip e fitte r s , A s b e s to s a n d I n s u la t in g W o r k e r s. P r in t in g O c c u p a tio n s __________________________________________ P h y s ic a l S c ie n tis ts : C h e m is t s , B io c h e m is t s , P h y s ic i s t s , A s . 10 .0 5 . 05 .0 5 . 10 . 15 1450-63 tr o n o m e r s __________ .1 0 P h y s ic i a n s __________________________________________________________ 05 1450-64 1450-65 1450-66 P o d ia t r is t s _____________________________________________________ P s y c h o lo g is t s ___________________________________________________ P u r c h a s in g A g e n ts , I n d u s tr ia l T r a ffic M a n a g e r s ____________ .0 5 .0 5 . 05 1450-67 1450-68 1450-69 1450-70 R e a l E s t a t e A g e n t s a n d B r o k e r s ---------- ----------------------------------R e c e p t io n is t s , T e le p h o n e O p e r a to r s__________________________ R e c r e a tio n W o r k e r s___________________________________________ R e g is te r e d P r o fe ss io n a l N u r s e s , L ic e n s e d P r a c tic a l N u r s e s , H o s p it a l A t t e n d a n t s ___________________________ ____________ S a n ita r ia n s _____________________________________________________ .05 .05 .05 1450-71 1450-72 . 10 . 05 1450-91 S a le s m e n a n d S a le s w o m e n in R e t a il S to r e s , S a le s m e n in W h o le s a le T r a d e , M a n u fa c tu r e r s ’ S a le s m e n _______________ S e c u r itie s S a le s m e n ___________ S h ip p in g a n d R e c e iv in g C l e r k s . . .____________________________ S h e e t-m e ta l W o r k e r s, R o o fe r s _________________________________ S o c ia l S c ie n tis ts : A n th r o p o lo g is ts , E c o n o m is t s , G e o g r a p h e r s, H is t o r ia n s , P o lit ic a l S c ie n t is t s , S o c io lo g is ts _________________ S o c ia l W o r k e r s .________________________________________________ S p e e c h P a th o lo g is ts a n d A u d io lo g is t s _____________________ .0 5 S ta tio n a r y E n g in e e r s , S ta tio n a r y F ir e m e n ( B o ile r ) ____ .0 5 S te n o g r a p h e r s a n d S e c r e ta r ie s, T y p i s t s ___________________ . . . S tr u c tu r a l a n d o th e r Ir o n w o r k e r s , E le v a t o r C o n s t r u c t o r s .. S u r v e y o r s ____________ T e a c h e r s: K in d e r g a r te n a n d E le m e n t a r y ,_S e c o n d a r y , C o l le g e a n d U n i v e r s it y .1 0 T e c h n ic a l W r it e r s .— ______________________________________ .0 5 T e c h n ic ia n s : E n g in e e r in g a n d S c ie n c e T e c h n ic ia n s , D r a fts m en T V a n d R a d io S e r v ic e m e n _________ .0 5 U r b a n P la n n e r s ____________________________________________ V e n d in g M a c h in e M e c h a n ic s _____________________________ .0 5 V e te r in a r ia n s _______________________________________________ .0 5 W a tc h R e p a ir m e n , J e w le r s a n d J e w e lr y R e p a ir m e n , I n s t r u m e n t R e p a ir m e n W e ld e r s , O x y g e n a n d A rc C u t t e r s ________________________ .0 5 1450-92 1450-93 1450-94 1450-95 1450-96 1450-97 1450-98 1450-99 A g r ic u ltu r e _______ ______________ .1 5 A irc ra ft, M is s ile s , a n d S p a c e c r a ft_________________________ . 10 A p p a r e l_____________________________________________________ . 10 A t o m ic E n e r g y _____________________________________________ .1 5 A v ia t io n , C i v il____________________________________________ . 15 .1 0 B a k in g .— _____________________ B a n k in g ____________________________________________________ . 10 C h e m ic a ls ________________________________________________ __________ 10 1450-100 1450-101 1450-102 E le c tr ic L ig h t a n d Pow re r ______________________________________ E le c tr o n ic s _____________________________________________________ F o u n d r ie s ______________________________________________________ 1450-103 1450-104 G o v e r n m e n t ________________________________________________ H o t e l ________________________________________________________ 1450-105 1450-106 I n s u r a n c e O c c u p a tio n s ________________________________________ Ir o n a n d S t e e l__________________________________________________ 1450-107 1450-108 1450-109 1450-110 M o to r V e h ic le s _____________________________________________ . 10 P e t r o le u m a n d N a t u r a l G a s_______________________________ .1 0 P a p e r ___________ .1 0 P o s t O ffic e _______ — __________________________________________ .1 0 1450-111 1450-112 R a d io a n d T V B r o a d c a s tin g _____________________ _________ .1 0 R e s t a u r a n t_______________ 1450-113 1450-114 T e l e p h o n e __________________________________________________ R a ilr o a d ____________________________________________________ 1450-73 1450-74 1450-75 1450-76 1450-77 1450-78 1470-79 1450-80 1450-81 1450-82 1450-83 1450-84 1450-85 .1 5 E le c tr ic ia n s (C o n s t r u c t io n ) ___________________________________ E le c tr o n ic C o m p u te r O p e r a tin g P e r s o n n e l, P r o g r a m e r s____ E n g in e e r s: A e r o s p a c e , A g r ic u ltu r a l, C er a m ic , C h e m ic a l C iv il, E le c tr ic a l, I n d u s tr ia l, M e c h a n ic a l, M e ta llu r g ic a l, M i n i n g ______________________________________________________ F a c to r y O p e r a tiv e s : A ss e m b le r s , E le c tr o p la te r s, I n s p e c to r s, P o w e r T r u c k O p er a to rs, P r o d u c tio n P a in t e r s ____________ F B I A g e n t s ------------------------------------------------------------------------------F ir e fig h te r s, P o lic e m e n a n d P o lic e w o m e n ___________________ F lo o r C o v e r in g I n s t a lle r s _____________________________________ F o r g in g O c c u p a tio n s , B la c k s m it h s ___________________________ H o m e E c o n o m is t s _____________________________________________ H o u s e h o ld W o r k e r s, P r iv a t e _________________________________ H o s p it a l A d m in is tr a to r s ______________________________________ L ab orers ( C o n s t r u c t io n ) ._____________________________________ 1450-33 B u lletin N o. 1450-86 1450-87 1450-88 1450-89 1450-90 . 10 .0 5 .0 5 . 10 .15 .0 5 .1 0 .1 0 .0 5 . 10 .0 5 .10 Some M ajor Industries and Their Occupations . 10 . 10 . 10 .1 5 .1 0 . 10 . 10 .1 0 -10 .2 0 $5.00 Do you need reprints of O ccu pation al Outlook H a n d b o o k statements? Among those who seek the Handbook career information in the form of convenient pamphlets are— Stu d e n ts interested in particular fields of work. C o u n se lo rs a n d lib ra ria n s who want to "stretch" their Handbooks. Te a ch e rs who want to relate their subjects to making ones way in the world. In d u stry , la b o r, o r p ro fe ssio n a l o rg a n iza tio n s that want authoritative and handy publications to answer public inquiries about careers. The entire Handbook has been reprinted in the Occupational Outlook Report Series. You may order individual reprints or full sets of 115 reprints. (See next page for a complete listing of titles and prices.) You may detach this sheet and use it as an order form. Please fill out both the order form and mailing label, enclose payment, and send to the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C. 20402, or to the Bureau of Labor Statistics regional office nearest you. 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Price 1450-A A L o o k a t T o m o r r o w ’s J o b s ----------------------------------------------------- 1450-1 1450-2 A c c o u n t a n t s ____________________________________________________ A d v e r tis in g , M a r k e t R e se a r c h , a n d P u b lic R e la tio n s 1450-3 1450-4 1450-5 1450-6 1450-7 1450-8 1450-9 1450-10 1450-11 1450-12 1450-13 1450-14 1450-15 1450-16 1450-17 1450-18 1450-19 1450-20 1450-21 1450-22 1450-23 1450-24 1450-25 1450-26 1450-27 1450-28 1450-29 1450-30 1450-31 1450-32 1450-53 1450-54 1450-55 O p e r a tin g E n g in e e r s ( C o n s tr u c tio n M a c h in e r y O p e r a t o r ) - . . 10 O p t o m e t r is ts ____________________________________________________ . 05 O s te o p a th ic P h y s ic i a n s ________________________________________ .0 5 W o r k e r s _____________________________________________________ A ir -C o n d itio n in g a n d R efrig e ra tio n M e c h a n ic s ----------------------A p p lia n c e S e r v ic e m e n ---------------------------------------------------------------- . 10 . 05 .0 5 A r c h it e c t s _______________________________________________________ A u t o m o t iv e S e r v ic e a n d S a le s O c c u p a tio n s : A u to m o b ile M e c h a n ic s , B o d y R e p a ir m e n , G a s S ta tio n A t t e n d a n t s , P a in te r s , P a r ts C o u n te r m e n , S a le s m e n , S e r v ic e A d v iso r s, T r u c k a n d B u s M e c h a n ic s , U p h o ls te r e r s _________________ B a r b e r s, C o s m e to lo g is ts ________________________________________ . 05 1450-56 1450-57 1450-58 1450-59 P e r fo r m in g A rts: A c to r s , D a n c e r s , M u s ic ia n s , S in g e r s ______ P e r s o n n e l W o r k e r s_____________________________________________ P h a r m a c is t s _____________________________________________________ P h o to g r a p h e r s __________________________________ ___ ____________ P lu m b e r s a n d P ip e fitte r s , A s b e s to s a n d I n s u la t in g W o r k e r s. P r in tin g O c c u p a tio n s __________________________________________ P h y s ic a l S c ie n tis ts : C h e m is ts , B io c h e m is t s , P h y s ic i s t s , A s tr o n o m e r s ______________________________________________________ P h y s ic i a n s ______________________________________________________ P o d ia t r is t s ______________________________________________________ .1 0 .05 .0 5 .0 5 . 10 . 15 P s y c h o lo g is t s -------------------------P u r c h a s in g A g e n t s , I n d u s tr ia l T ra ffic M a n a g e r s _________ R e a l E s t a t e A g e n ts a n d B r o k e r s _______________________________ R e c e p t io n is t s , T e le p h o n e O p e r a to r s ----------------------------------------R e c r e a tio n W o r k e r s____________________________________________ R e g is te r e d P r o fe ss io n a l N u r s e s , L ic e n s e d P r a c tic a l N u r s e s , H o s p it a l A t t e n d a n t s ________________________________________ S a n ita r ia n s ______________________________________________________ S a le s m e n a n d S a le s w o m e n in R e t a il S to r e s , S a le s m e n in W h o le s a le T r a d e , M a n u fa c tu r e r s ’ S a le s m e n ______________ S e c u r itie s S a le s m e n -------------------------------------------------------------------S h ip p in g a n d R e c e iv in g C le r k s ________________________________ S h e e t-m e ta l W o rk er s, R o o fe r s_____I __________________________ S o c ia l S c ie n tis ts : A n th r o p o lo g is ts , E c o n o m is t s , G e o g ra p h e rs, H is t o r ia n s , P o lit ic a l S c ie n t is t s , S o c io lo g is ts __________________ S o c ia l W o r k e r s __________________________________________________ S p e e c h P a t h o lo g is t s a n d A u d io lo g is t s _________________________ S ta tio n a r y E n g in e e r s, S ta tio n a r y F ir e m e n ( B o ile r )___________ .05 .0 5 .05 .05 . 05 B io lo g ic a l S c ie n t is t s ____________________________________________ B o ile r m a k in g O c c u p a tio n s _____________________________________ B o o k k e e p in g W o r k e r s, O ffice M a c h in e O p e r a to r s___________ B o w lin g - M a c h in e M e c h a n ic s --------------------------------------------------B r ic k la y e r s , S to n e m a s o n s , M a r b le S e tte r s , T ile S e tte r s , T er ra zzo W o r k e r s ----------------------------------------------------------------B u s in e s s M a c h in e S e r v ic e m e n ------------------------------------------------C a r p e n te r s , P a in te r s , P a p e r h a n g e r s, G la z ie r s------------------------C e m e n t M a s o n s , P la ste r e r s , L a th e r s _________________________ C a sh ie r s ________________________________________________________ C h ir o p r a c to r s ___________________________________________________ C le r g y : P r o te s ta n t C le r g y m e n , R a b b is , R o m a n C a th o lic P r ie s t s _______________________________________________________ C o m m e r c ia l A r tis ts , I n d u s tr ia l D e s ig n e r s , I n te r io r D e sig n e r s a n d D e c o r a to r s ______________________________________________ C o n s e r v a tio n O c c u p a tio n s : F o r e ste r s, F o r e s tr y A id s , R a n g e M a n a g e r s ___________________________________________________ C o u n s e lin g a n d P la c e m e n t: C o lle g e P la c e m e n t O fficers, S c h o o l, R e h a b ilit a t io n , a n d V o c a tio n a l C o u n s e lo r s _______ D e n t a l H y g i e n is t s ______________________________________________ D e n t a l L a b o r a to r y T e c h n ic ia n s _______________________________ D e n t i s t s ________________________________________________________ D ie s e l M e c h a n ic s ______________________________________________ D ie t i t ia n s _______________________________________________________ D is p e n s in g O p tic ia n s, O p tic a l L a b o r a to r y M e c h a n ic s _______ D r iv in g O c c u p a tio n s : T r u c k , B u s , a n d T a x i D r iv e r s; R o u t e m e n . . . _______________________________________________ E a r th S c ie n tis ts : G e o lo g is ts , G e o p h y s ic is ts , M e te o r o lo g ists , O c e a n o g r a p h e r s _____________________________________________ E le c tr ic ia n s (C o n s t r u c t io n ) ____________________________________ 1450-60 1450-61 1450-62 . 20 . 05 .1 0 .0 5 . 10 .0 5 . 15 . 10 . 15 . 15 .0 5 1450-63 1450-64 1450-65 1450-66 1450-67 1450-68 1450-69 1450-70 1450-71 1450-72 . 05 . 10 . 10 . 10 . 10 .05 . 05 .0 5 .0 5 . 05 .0 5 1450-73 1450-74 1450-75 1450-76 1450-77 1450-78 1470-79 1450-80 1450-81 1450-82 1450-83 . 10 .1 0 1450-34 1450-35 1450-36 1450-37 1450-38 1450-39 1450-40 1450-41 H o s p it a l A d m i n i s t r a t o r s .. . ----------------------------------------------------L ab orer s (C o n s t r u c t io n ) _______________________________________ .0 5 .1 0 1450-42 1450-43 1450-44 L a n d s c a p e A r c h it e c t s - ________________________________________ L a w y e r s ________________________________________________________ L ib r a r ia n s _______ ______________________________________________ .0 5 .05 1450-45 M a c h in in g O c c u p a tio n s : I n s t r u m e n t M a k e r s, M a c h in is t s , . 10 . 10 . 10 . 05 . 10 . 10 . 10 .0 5 .0 5 .0 5 .15 . 05 .0 5 .0 5 A g r ic u ltu r e _____________________________________________________ . 10 . 10 . 05 . 15 1450-93 1450-94 1450-95 1450-96 1450-97 1450-98 A irc ra ft, M is s ile s , a n d S p a c e c r a ft_____________________________ A p p a r e l_________________________________________________________ A t o m ic E n e r g y _________________________________________________ A v ia t io n , C i v i l _______________________________________________ B a k in g __________________________________________________________ B a n k in g ________________________________________________________ .10 .10 . 15 . 15 . 10 . 10 1450-99 1450-100 1450-101 1450-102 C h e m ic a ls ______________________________________________________ E le c tr ic L ig h t a n d P o w e r _____________________________________ E le c tr o n ic s _____________________________________________________ F o u n d r ie s ______________________________________________________ . 10 .1 0 . 10 1450-103 1450-104 G o v e r n m e n t ____________________________________________________ H o t e l _____________________________ : ____________________________ . 10 .0 5 .1 0 .0 5 .0 5 .0 5 .0 5 .10 .0 5 Some M ajor Industries and Their Occupations .1 0 1450-105 I n s u r a n c e O c c u p a tio n s ________________________________________ .1 5 .1 0 . 10 1450-106 Ir o n a n d S t e e l__________________________________________________ . 10 1450-107 1450-108 1450-109 M o to r V e h ic le s ______________________ P e tr o le u m a n d N a t u r a l G a s ___________________________________ P a p e r ________ : __________________________________ ^_____________ .1 0 . 10 .1 0 1450-110 P o s t O f f ic e .____________________________________________________ .1 0 1450-111 1450-112 1450-113 R a d io a n d T V B r o a d c a s tin g __________________________________ R e s t a u r a n t _____________________________________________________ T e l e p h o n e ______________________________________________________ . 10 . 10 . 10 R a ilr o a d ________________________________________________________ .2 0 M a in te n a n c e E le c tr ic ia n s , I n d u s tr ia l M a c h in e r y R e p a ir m e n , M illw r ig h t s _________________________________________________ . 10 M a t h e m a t ic s a n d R e la t e d F ie ld s : M a th e m a tic ia n s , S t a t is t i c ia n s , A c t u a r ie s _____________________________________________ . 10 1450-48 1450-49 M e d ic a l R e c o r d L ib r a r ia n s ____________________________________ M e d ic a l T e c h n o lo g is t s _________________________________________ .0 5 .0 5 1450-50 1450-51 M e d ic a l X - R a y T e c h n ic ia n s __________________________________ N e w s p a p e r R e p o r te r s _________________________________________ .0 5 .0 5 1450-52 O c c u p a tio n a l T h e r a p is ts , P h y s ic a l T h e r a p is t s _______________ .05 1450-114 Bulletin 1450 Occupational Outlook Handbook . 10 .0 5 .05 .1 0 1450-92 1450-86 1450-87 1450-88 1450-89 1450-90 . 15 1450-47 . 10 .0 5 1450-91 1450-84 1450-85 M a c h in e T o o l O p er a to rs, T o o l a n d D ie M a k e r s, S e tu p M e n , L a y o u t M e n __________________________________________ 1450-46 .10 .0 5 . 05 S te n o g r a p h e r s a n d S e c r e ta r ie s, T y p i s t s _______________________ S tr u c tu r a l a n d o th e r Ir o n w o r k e r s , E le v a t o r C o n s t r u c t o r s - . S u r v e y o r s _______________________________________________________ T e a c h e r s: K in d e r g a r te n a n d E le m e n t a r y , S e c o n d a r y , C o l le g e a n d U n i v e r s it y T e c h n ic a l W r ite r s ______________________________________________ T e c h n ic ia n s : E n g in e e r in g a n d S c ie n c e T e c h n ic ia n s , D r a fts m e n __________________________________________________________ T V a n d R a d io S e r v ic e m e n ____________________________________ U r b a n P la n n e r s ________________________________________________ V e n d in g M a c h in e M e c h a n ic s --------------------------- ----------------------V e te r in a r ia n s ___________________________________________________ W a tc h R e p a ir m e n , J e w le r s a n d J e w e lr y R e p a ir m e n , I n s tr u m e n t R e p a ir m e n W e ld e r s , O x y g e n a n d A r c C u t t e r s ____________________________ .1 5 E le c tr o n ic C o m p u te r O p e r a tin g P e r s o n n e l, P r o g r a m e r s ____ E n g in e e r s: A e r o s p a c e , A g r ic u ltu r a l, C e r a m ic , C h e m ic a l C iv il, E le c tr ic a l, I n d u s tr ia l, M e c h a n ic a l, M e ta llu r g ic a l, M i n i n g ______________________________________________________ F a c to r y O p e r a tiv e s : A ss e m b le r s , E le c tr o p la te r s, I n s p e c to r s, P o w e r T r u c k O p er a to rs, P r o d u c tio n P a in t e r s ____________ F B I A g e n t s ____________________________________________________ F ir e fig h te r s, P o lic e m e n a n d P o lic e w o m e n ____________________ F lo o r C o v e r in g I n s t a lle r s ______________________________________ F o r g in g O c c u p a tio n s , B la c k s m it h s ___________________________ H o m e E c o n o m is t s ___________ H o u s e h o ld W o r k e r s, P r iv a t e __________________________________ 1450-33 Price N o. . 10 .0 5 $5.00 For continuous inform ation to supplem ent and update the b ien n ially published H a n d b o o k , turn to the O ccupational O u tlo o k Q uarterly. Designed especially for professionals who work with young people, the Q u a rterly interprets the guidance im plications of research find ings in the economic, dem ographic, educational, and technical fields. Place your order with the Superintendent of Documents, W ashing ton, D.C., 20402, or with any of the following regional offices of the B ureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor: 1371 Peachtree St. NE. Atlanta, Ga. 30309 18 Oliver St. Boston, Mass. 1365 Ontario St. Cleveland, Ohio 44114 02110 219 S. Dearborn St. Chicago, 111. 60604 341 Ninth Ave. New York, N.Y. 450 Golden Gate Ave. Box 36017 San Francisco, Calif. 94102 Subscription: $1.25 p er year ($ 1 .7 5 fo reig n ). Single copies: 35 cents. f 10001 occupational outlook handbook
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